Harvest Time and Fertility Effects on Yield and Quality of Forage from Alfalfa, Hybrid Bromegrass and Their Mixture

A field experiment with 24 treatments consisting of three perennial forage crops [alfalfa (Medicago sativa L. cv. AC Longview), hybrid bromegrass (Bromus riparius Rehm & Bromus inermis Leyss. cv. AC Success) and their mixture], four Cut 1 dates (approximately June 20, July 10, July 30 or August 20), and two fertilizer levels (unfertilized and fertilized) was established in late May 2014, on a Black Chernozem [Udic Boroll] silty clay soil. Forage dry matter yield [DMY], and concentration (g·kg−1 DM) of crude protein [CP], total digestible nutrients [TDN] and acid detergent fiber [ADF] data were collected over 3 years from 2015 to 2017. The fertilizer treatments were imposed in 2016 and 2017. Forage crops were initially cut at four Cut 1 dates, and again cut [Cut 2] in autumn (September 2 in 2015, November 7 in 2016 and October 5 in 2017). For all three forage crops, forage DMY usually increased when Cut 1 was delayed. Delaying Cut 1 reduced forage DMY for Cut 2. Total DMY (Cut 1 + Cut 2) for all three forage crops was highest from the combination of July 10 and late Autumn cuts. Alfalfa-bromegrass mixture produced higher DMY than bromegrass or alfalfa alone. Fertilizer application resulted in a significant increase in Cut 1 and total DMY for bromegrass. The CP concentration in Cut 1 forage usually declined as the forage crops matured. The CP concentration was highest for alfalfa, followed by alfalfa-bromegrass mixture, and much lower for bromegrass. There was little or no effect of forage crop maturity on the TDN and ADF concentrations in forage. The TDN concentration was higher and ADF concentration was lower in forage from alfalfa or alfalfa-bromegrass mixture than bromegrass. Fertilizer application significantly increased CP concentration for alfalfa-bromegrass mixture. Delaying harvesting for Cut 1 increased ADF yield and TDN yield until Late July, but CP yield generally decreased with crop maturity. The ADF yield and TDN yield were higher for alfalfa-bromegrass mixture than bromegrass or alfalfa alone, and CP yield was similar for alfalfa and alfalfa-bromegrass mixture but considerably higher than bromegrass. Fertilizer application increased CP yield and ADF yield for bromegrass and alfalfa-bromegrass mixture, and TDN yield only for bromegrass. In conclusion, total DMY (Cut 1 + Cut 2) was highest for a combination of Early July and Autumn cuts. Forage yield was highest for alfalfa-bromegrass mixture, followed by alfalfa and lowest for bromegrass. The CP and TDN concentrations were higher, and ADF concentrations were lower in forage from alfalfa or alfalfa-bromegrass mixture than bromegrass.

Seed Yield Potential of Five Wheat Species/Cultivars without and with Phosphorus Fertilizer Application on a P-Deficient Soil in Northeastern Saskatchewan

In the Canadian Prairies, many soils on organic farms are low in available phosphorus (P). Previous research has shown that wheat species/cultivars vary in their sensitivity to P deficiency, yield response to applied P fertilizer, P uptake and P use efficiency on P-deficient soils. A 3-year field experiment was conducted from 2012 to 2014 on a P-deficient soil at Kelvington, Saskatchewan, Canada, to determine the potential of five wheat species/cultivars (Spelt and Kamut representing “ancient”, Red Fife representing “old”, and Unity and Goodeve representing “modern” wheat species/cultivars) for seed yield, protein concentration (PC) in seed, partial factor of productivity (PFP, kg seed kg-1 of N applied), total N and P uptake, P use efficiency (PUE, kg seed kg-1 of P applied) and % recovery of applied P in seed under zero-P and with P fertilizer (triple superphosphate) applied at 20 kg P ha-1. Seed yield, PFP and PUE were determined in all 3 years, but PC, total N and P uptake, and % recovery of applied P in seed were determined only in 2012. There was a marked and significant response of seed yield and PFP of all wheat species/cultivars to P fertilizer in all 3 years, but the actual seed yield and PFP, without and with applied P fertilizer, as well as PUE, varied with species/cultivar in different years. On the average of 3 years, seed yield and PFP were greatest for Unity in both without and with applied P fertilizer treatments. Seed yield increases from applied P were 1111, 773, 890, 1810 and 2028 kg·ha-1, respectively, for Spelt, Kamut, Red Fife, Unity and Goodeve. Total N and P uptake were lowest for Kamut and greatest for Unity or Goodeve, in both without and with applied P fertilizer treatments. Percent recovery of applied P in seed was greatest for Goodeve or Unity and lowest for Spelt or Kamut. Protein concentration in seed usually decreased with P fertilizer, and wheat species/cultivars with higher PC in seed usually showed greater reduction in PC with P application. In conclusion, the findings suggest that the “modern” wheat species/cultivars Unity or Goodeve might be more suitable for high sustainable seed yield and total P or N uptake than the “ancient” wheat species Spelt and Kamut or the “old” wheat cultivar Red Fife, especially when adequate amount of P fertilizer is applied to optimize crop production on a P-deficient soil.

Relative Effectiveness of Various Amendments in Improving Yield and Nutrient Uptake under Organic Crop Production

In organic farming, artificial/synthetic inorganic fertilizers/chemicals are not applied to increase crop yields, but adequate amounts of nutrients are essential for sustainable high production from agricultural crops. Two 3-year (2008 - wheat, 2009 – pea, and 2010 - barley) field experiments were conducted on certified organic farms near Spalding (Dark Brown Chernozem – Typic Haploboroll) and Star City (Gray Luvisol – Typic Haplocryalf) in northeastern Saskatche-wan to determine the relative effectiveness of various organic amendments (compost, alfalfa pellets, wood ash, rock phosphate, Penicillium bilaiae, MykePro, or gypsum), and intercropping of non-legume (wheat, barley) and legume (pea) annual crops on seed yield, total biomass yield (TBY) and nutrient uptake in seed + straw of wheat, pea and barley. In 2008, seed yield, TBY and nutrient uptake of wheat increased (but small) with compost and alfalfa pellets. In 2010, seed yield, TBY and nutrient uptake of barley increased substantially with compost and alfalfa pellets and moderately with wood ash. Other amendments had little or no effect on crop yield and nutrient uptake. In 2009, there was no beneficial effect of any amendment on yield and nutrient uptake of pea, most likely due to fixation of N which is the most limiting nutrient in these soils. Intercropping of wheat or barley with pea produced greater seed yield and nutrient uptake per unit land area basis compared to wheat or barley grown as sole crops in most cases. In conclusion, our results suggest potential benefits in improving yield and nutrient uptake of wheat and barley from compost, alfalfa pellets and possibly wood ash, most likely by preventing deficiencies of some nutrients, especially N, lacking in these soils under organic farming. Our findings also suggest the need for future research to determine the feasibility of rock phosphate, Penicillium bilaiae, MykePro, gypsum or other amendments in preventing P and/or S deficiency in organic crops using soils extremely deficient in these nutrients.

Feasibility of Rock Phosphate and Other Amendments in Preventing P Deficiency in Barley on a P-Deficient Soil in Northeastern Saskatchewan

In?the Canadian Prairies, many soils on organic farms are low in available P, and the only alternative is to use external sources to prevent P nutrient deficiency on these soils. A 3-year (2012 to 2014) field experiment was established in spring 2012 on a P-deficient soil near Kelvington, Saskatchewan, Canada, to determine the potential of organic amendments (alfalfa pellets, compost manure, thin stillage and distiller grain dry of wheat), inorganic amendments (rock phosphate granular, rock phosphate fine, wood ash and bone meal ash) and microbial inoculants/products (JumpStart®and MYKE®PRO), applied alone or in a combination with N and/or P commercial fertilizers, in preventing P deficiency and increasing seed yield, N and P uptake of barley. Compared to unfertilized control, N only treatment did not result in any significant increase in seed yield, while application of P alone increased seed yield significantly but to a lesser degree than when both N and P fertilizers were applied together in all 3 years. Rock phosphate did not result in any seed yield benefit, even when applied along with N fertilizer. Wood ash fine increased seed yield of barley significantly only in the presence of N fertilizer, with highest seed yield in the presence of both N + P fertilizers. Seed yield of barley increased moderately with alfalfa pellets, significantly with compost manure, and considerably with distiller grain dry of wheat, but highest seed yield was obtained from thin stillage, which was essentially similar to that obtained from the N + P fertilizer combination. There was no yield benefit from JumpStart or MykePro in any year and only slight benefit from bone meal ash in 2013. The addition of N fertilizer to MykePro or bone meal ash treatments increased seed yield, but highest yield was obtained when both N and P fertilizers were added, suggesting a lack of available P for optimum seed yield. With few exceptions, the response trends of total N and P uptake in seed + straw to the amendments studied were generally similar to those of seed yield. In conclusion, the organic amendment “thin stillage” provided balanced nutrition and produced yield and nutrient uptake of barley similar to balanced N + P fertilizer treatment, and it was closely followed by “distiller grain dry of wheat”, with moderate benefit from compost manure and some benefit from alfalfa pellets. In this extremely P-deficient soil, rock phosphate was not found effective in preventing P deficiency in barley, while wood ash and bone meal ash provided moderate increase in barley yield, with little yield benefit from JumpStart and MykePro, when other nutrients were not limiting in the soil.

Short-term residual effects of various amendments on organic C and N, and available nutrients in soil under organic crop production

Two 3-year (2008-2010, wheat-pea-barley) field experiments were conducted on certified organic farms near Spalding (Dark Brown Chernozem-Typic Haploboroll) and Star City (Gray Luvisol-Typic Haplocryalf) in northeastern Sas-katchewan, Canada, to determine the residual effects of compost, alfalfa pellets, wood ash, rock phosphate, Penicillium bilaiae, gypsum and MykePro on organic C and N (total organic C [TOC], total organic N [TON], light fraction organic C [LFOC], light fraction organic N [LFON]) and mineralizable N (Nmin) in the 0 - 15 cm soil layer, and ammonium-N, nitrate-N, extractable P, exchangeable K and sulphate-S in the 0 - 15, 15 - 30 and 30 - 60 cm soil layers in autumn 2010. Compared to the unamended control, mass of TOC, TON, LFOC and LFON increased with compost and alfalfa pellets in both soils. However, the increases were much more pronounced for LFOC (by 125% - 133%) or LFON (by 102% - 103%) than TOC (by 19% - 29%) or TON (by 25% - 40%). The Nmin also increased in these two treatments compared to the control, but the increases were much smaller for compost than alfalfa pellets. In general, residual nitrate-N increased with increasing rate of compost and alfalfa pellets in the 0 - 15 and 15 - 30 cm layers in both soils. Extractable P increased with compost and exchangeable K with alfalfa pellets, but only in the 0 - 15 cm soil layer. Sulphate-S increased with compost, but mainly in the 30 - 60 cm soil layer. Soil pH usually increased with compost and more so with wood ash, but no effect of any amendment on ammonium-N. Overall, the quantity of organic C and N, and available nutrients in soil increased with compost and/or alfalfa pellets, but the magnitude varied with amendment and/or soil type. In conclusion, our findings suggest that soil quality and fertility can be improved with these organic amendments, suggesting sustainability of production from organic crops.

Relative effects of anaerobically-digested and conventional liquid swine manure, and N fertilizer on crop yield and greenhouse gas emissions

Anaerobic digestion is a promising technology that could provide an option for managing animal waste with reduced greenhouse gas emissions. A three-year (2006-2008) field experiment was conducted at Star City, Saskatchewan, Canada, to compare the effects of land-applied anaerobically digested swine manure (ADSM), conventionally treated swine manure (CTSM) and N fertilizer on grain yield of barley, applied N use efficiency (ANUE, kg·grain·kg-1 of applied N·ha-1), ammonia (NH3) volatilization and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions. Treatments included spring and autumn applications of CTSM and ADSM at a 1x rate (10,000 and 7150 L·ha-1, respectively) applied every year, a 3x rate (30,000 and 21,450 L·ha-1, respectively) applied once at the beginning of the experiment, plus a treatment receiving commercial fertilizer (UAN at 60 kg·N·ha-1·yr-1) and a zero-N control. There was a significant grain yield response of barley to applied N in all three years. The ANUE of ADSM or CTSM applied once at the 3x rate were lower than annual applications at the 1x rate (grain yield by 595 kg·ha-1 and NFUE by 6 kg·grain·kg-1 of applied N·ha-1). On average, agronomic performance of ADSM was similar to CTSM. The APNU of N fertilizer was greater than the 3x rate but lower than the 1x rate of ADSM or CTSM. Ammonia loss from ADSM was similar to CTSM, except for much higher loss of NH3-N from CTSM at the 3x rate applied in the autumn (8100 g·N·ha-1) compared to the other treatments (1100 - 2600 g·N·ha-1). The percentage of applied N lost as N2O gas was generally higher for treatments receiving CTSM (4.0%) compared to ADSM (1.4%). In conclusion, the findings suggest that ADSM is equal or slightly better than CTSM in terms of agronomic performance, but has lower environmental impact.

Short-term influence of anaerobically-digested and conventional swine manure, and N fertilizer on organic C and N, and available nutrients in two contrasting soils

A three-year (2006-2008) field experiment was conducted at Swift Current and Star City in Saskatchewan to determine the short-term in-fluence of land-applied anaerobically digested swine manure (ADSM), conventionally treated swine manure (CTSM) and N fertilizer on total organic C (TOC), total organic N (TON), light fraction organic C (LFOC), light fraction organic N (LFON) and pH in the 0 - 7.5 and 7.5 - 15 cm soil layers, and ammonium-N, nitrate-N, extractable P, exchangeable K and sulphate-S in the 0 - 15, 15 - 30, 30 - 60, 60 - 90 and 90 - 120 cm soil layers. Treatments included spring and autumn applications of CTSM and ADSM at a 1x rate (10,000 and 7150 L·ha-1, respectively) applied each year, a 3x rate (30,000 and 21,450 L·ha-1, respectively) applied once at the beginning of the experiment, plus a treatment receiving commercial fertilizer (UAN at 60 kg·N·ha-1·yr-1) and a zero-N control. There was no effect of swine manure rate, type and application time on soil pH. Mass of TOC and TON in the 15 cm soil layer increased significantly with swine manure application compared to the control, mainly at the Swift Current site, with greater increases from 3x rate than 1x rate (by 2.21 Mg·C·ha-1 and 0.167 Mg·N·ha-1). Compared to the control, mass of LFOC and LFON in the 15 cm soil layer increased with swine manure application at sites, with greater increases from 3x rate than 1x rate (by 287 kg·C·ha-1 and 26 kg·N·ha-1 at Star City, and by 194 kg·C·ha-1 and 19·kg·N ha-1 at Swift Current). Mass of TOC and TON in soil layer was tended to be greater with ADSM than CTSM, but mass of LFOC and LFON in soil was greater with CTSM than ADSM. Mass of TOC, TON, LFOC and LFON in soil also increased with annual N fertilizer application compared to the control (by 3.2 Mg·C·ha-1 for TOC, 0.195 Mg·N·ha-1 for TON, 708 kg·C·ha-1 for LFOC and 45 kg·N·ha-1 for LFON). In conclusion, our findings suggest that the quantity and quality of organic C and N in soil can be affected by swine manure rate and type, and N fertilization even after three years, most likely by influencing inputs of C and N through crop residue, and improve soil quality.

Improving crop yield, N uptake and economic returns by intercropping barley or canola with pea

Two field experiments were conducted from 2009 to 2011 on a Gray Luvisol (Typic Haplocryalf) loam at Star City, Saskatchewan, Canada, to determine the effectiveness of intercropping barley or canola with pea in improving crop yield, total N uptake, seed quality, Land Equivalency Ratio (LER) and economic returns compared to barley, canola or pea grown as monocultures. Average seed yields of barley-pea or canola-pea intercrops were usually greater than those of barley, canola or pea as sole crops. In intercrops, application of N fertilizer increased seed yield of barley or canola but had only slight beneficial effect on the combined seed yield of both crops together. The LER values for intercrops were usually much greater than 1, suggesting less land requirements of intercropping systems than monoculture for the same seed yield. Net returns were lowest for barley as sole crop. Without applied N, net returns were slightly lower for barley-pea intercrop and slightly greater for canola-pea intercrop than pea as a sole crop. Generally, protein concentration in canola or barley seed was higher and oil concentration in canola seed was lower in intercrop combinations compared to sole crops. Response trends of total N uptake in seed or straw were usually similar to that of seed or straw yield. In conclusion, intercropping barley or canola with pea improved yield, N uptake and net returns, suggesting the potential of barley-pea or canola-pea intercrops and pea for organic farming systems.

Feasibility of a New Granular Rapid Release Elemental S Fertilizer in Preventing S Deficiency of Canola on a S-Deficient Soil

Our previous research has indicated that granular elemental S (ES) fertilizers are not effective in the year of application and also are not consistently as effective as sulphate-S in increasing seed yield of canola in subsequent years, especially when applied at seeding in spring, because of slow dispersion of elemental S particles from granules for subsequent oxidation of ES to sulphate-S. A field experiment was established in autumn 2010 to determine the relative effectiveness of a new rapid release elemental S (RRES, now called Vitasul) fertilizer, in comparison to sulphate-S fertilizer, with various combinations of application times and placement methods (applied at 20 kg&middotS&middotha-1) on seed yield, straw yield, oil and protein concentration in seed, N and S uptake, partial factor productivity (PFP—kg&middotseed&middotkg-1 applied N&middotha-1—blanket application of 120 kg&middotN&middotha-1), S use efficiency (SUE—increase in kg&middotseed&middotkg-1 applied S&middotha-1) and percent recovery of applied S in seed + straw (%) of canola in 2011, 2012 and 2013 growing seasons on a S-deficient Gray Luvisol loam soil at Star City, Saskatchewan. The 11 treatments included two granular S sources (RRES and potassium sulphate) and five application time/placement method combinations (broadcast in autumn and incorporated in spring, broadcast in spring pre-tillage [broadcast and incorporated], broadcast in spring pre-emergence, sideband in spring and seedrow-placed in spring), plus a zero-S control. There was a significant response of seed yield of canola to applied S in all 3 years, but the responses varied with S source and with application time-placement combinations in different years. Seed yield increased considerably with all sulphate-S treatments compared to the zero-S control, although seed yield tended to be slightly lower in some spring and/or autumn broadcast treatments than the other sulphate-S treatments. Compared to the zero-S control, seed yield also increased significantly with all RRES treatments, but the increase was greater with autumn applied RRES than the spring applied RRES in many cases. Autumn applied RRES produced only slightly lower seed yield but spring applied RRES produced much lower seed yield than the highest yielding spring applied sulphate-S treatments. In 2011, straw yields increased significantly with applied S in some S treatments, but there was no significant effect of S fertilization on straw yield in 2012 and 2013. Oil concentration in canola seed increased only with sulphate-S fertilizer treatments in 2011, and it increased with both sulphate-S and ES sources in 2012 and 2013. There was no effect of any S treatment on the protein concentration in canola seed. The response trends of total N uptake and PFP were usually similar to seed yield for both S sources, but total S uptake, SUE and % recovery of applied S were lower with RRES than sulphate-S in many/most cases. In conclusion, the findings suggested the potential of spring broadcast pre-emergence RRES or autumn broadcast RRES in preventing S deficiency in hybrid canola, although seed yields were still slightly lower than the ideal highest yielding spring broadcast/incorporated sulphate-S treatment.

Intercropping barley with pea for agronomic and economic considerations in northern Ontario

Intercropping, a mix of non-legume and legume crops, can improve crop yield and/or economic returns and reduce input costs. Field experiments (barley-pea intercrop) were conducted in 2008, 2010 and 2011 on an Oskondoga silt loam soil at Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada, to determine the effect of intercropping barley (non-legume) and pea (legume) on grain yield, land equivalency ratio (LER), grain quality (protein concentration-PC), N uptake and economic returns. Barley and pea were grown as mono crops and in combinations as intercrops (both in the same row/and alternate rows). Nitrogen fertilizer was applied at 0, 40 and 80 kg·N·ha-1 to mono crop barley and at 0, 20 and 40 kg·N·ha-1 to barley-pea intercrop combinations. On an average of three years, application of 80 kg·N·ha-1 increased grain yield of barley by 846 kg·ha-1 as a sole crop and by 420 - 488 kg·ha-1 in the two intercropping combinations. Compared to barley and pea as sole crops, grain yield with barley-pea intercropping was greater by 266 kg·ha-1 with alternate row combination and by 223 kg·ha-1when both crops were grown in the same row. The LER values suggested 7% - 17% less land requirement for barley-pea intercropping than sole crops. Net returns from barley-pea intercropping without applied N greatly improved ($854 - $939 ha-1) compared to barley sole crop with 80 kg·N·ha-1($628 ha-1), although the net returns were highest for pea grown as a sole crop without applied N ($1141 ha-1). For barley as a sole crop, PC in grain increased with applied N. Compared to barley as sole crop with zero-N, PC in barley grain increased when barley was intercropped with pea. In barley-pea intercrop treatments, application of N fertilizer had no significant effect on PC in barley grain, although PC in pea grain was much higher than PC in barley grain. The response trends of total N uptake in grain were similar to grain yield. The findings suggest that pea or barley-pea intercropping could be an option for organic farming systems.

Effects of broad-leaf crop frequency in various rotations on soil organic C and N, and inorganic N in a Dark Brown soil

The objective of this study was to determine the impact of frequency of broad-leaf crops canola and pea in various crop rotations on pH, total organic C (TOC), total organic N (TON), light fraction organic C (LFOC) and light fraction organic N (LFON) in the 0 - 7.5 and 7.5 - 15 cm soil depths in autumn 2009 after 12 years (1998-2009) on a Dark Brown Chernozem (Typic Boroll) loam at Scott, Saskatchewan, Canada. The field ex-periment contained monoculture canola (herbicide tolerant and blackleg resistant hybrid) and monoculture pea compared with rotations that contained these crops every 2-, 3-, and 4-yr with wheat. There was no effect of crop rotation duration and crop phase on soil pH. Mass of TOC and TON in the 0 - 15 cm soil was greater in canola phase than pea phase in the 1-yr (monoculture) and 2-yr crop rotations, while the opposite was true in the 3-yr and 4-yr crop rotations. Mass of TOC and TON (averaged across crop phases,) in soil generally increased with increasing crop rotation duration, with the maximum in the 4-yr rotation while no difference in the 1-yr and 2-yr rotations. Mass of LFOC and LFON in soil was greater in canola phase than pea phase in the 1-yr, 2-yr and 3-yr rotations, but the opposite was true in the 4-yr rotation. There was no consistent effect of crop rotation duration on mass of LFOC and LFON. The N balance sheet over the 1998 to 2009 period indicated large amounts of unaccounted N for monoculture pea, suggesting a great potential for N loss from the soil-plant system in this treatment through nitrate leaching and/or denitrification. In conclusion, the findings suggest that the quantity of organic C and N can be maximized by increasing duration of crop rotation and by including hybrid canola in the rotation.

Reducing toxic effect of seed-soaked Cu fertilizer on germination of wheat

A laboratory incubation experiment (20℃) was conducted to find if the detrimental effects of seed-soaked Cu on wheat seedlings can be minimized by reducing time duration of seed in contact with Cu EDTA fertilizer solution. The 24 treatments in a 6 x 4 factorial arrangement included 6 rates/amounts of Cu (0, 15, 30, 60, 120 and 240 g Cu 100 kg-1 seed) and 4 seed-soaking time durations (0, 4, 8 and 16 h). The germination of wheat seed was 100% in the zero-Cu control treatments, irrespective of the duration of seed soaking time. However, seed germination decreased with increasing amount of fertilizer Cu in the seed-soaking solution, and the magnitude of reduction in seed germination due to Cu toxicity increased with increasing duration of seed-soaking time in the Cu fertilizer solution. For the seed-soaked treatments, the detrimental effect of Cu on germination was greatest with 16 h soaking, where only 13% - 18% of the seeds germinated with Cu applied at 15 to 30 g Cu 100 kg-1 seed. For the 4 and 8 h seed soaking treatments, germination of wheat seed ranged from 73% to 83% with 15 g Cu 100 kg-1 seed treatment and 42% to 62% with 30 g Cu 100 kg-1 seed. The findings suggest that the detrimental effect of Cu on germination of wheat seed soaked in Cu EDTA solution can be decreased by reducing duration of soaking time from 16 h to 4 or 8 h, but this needs further investigation using soil under growth chamber and/or field conditions in order to make valid recommendations for use of this new technology on a commercial scale.