The Use of Seaweeds Aquaculture for Carbon Sequestration： A Strategy for Climate Change Mitigation

Seaweed has the ability to use carbon from the environment through photosynthesis to produce biomass. The aim of this study is to estimate carbon sequestration by seaweed aquaculture as a strategy for climate change mitigation. The study was undertaken at Gerupuk Bay, Lombok Island, West Nusa Tenggara Province, Indonesia. Four seaweed variants, such as Kappaphycus alvarezii var. Tambalang and Maumere, K. striatum and Eucheuma denticulatum, were cultivated with long-line system for three cultivation periods, starting from July to November, 2013. Each cultivation period was taken about 45 days. Parameters including weight increasement and carbon content of seaweeds were measured every 15 days of culture for each cultivation period in order to calculate carbon sequestration rate. The results showed that E. denticulatum had the highest carbon sequestration rate and significantly different （P 〈 0.05） compared with other variants for every cultivation period. Different seaweed variants have different capacity on carbon sequestration. Optimal utilization of the potential area for seaweed aquaculture could reduce a great quantity of CO2 from the atmosphere and help to mitigate global climate change process.

Communicative Names of Cities and Streets

This paper presents the different categories of communicative names of cities and streets with some examples all over the world. The commemorative role is playing also by the names of some continents, like America, from the Amerigo Vespucci＇s name. But many countries and states particularly in the Americas remember the Columbus＇ name. Many city names remember political leaders of great significance, like Washington after Georg Washington, Monrovia after James Monroe, Leningrad （today Saint Petersburg, which remembered the tsar Peter I）. Two soviet leaders, Lenin and Stalin were remembered by two Russian cities, Leningrad and Stalingrad, nowadays Saint Petersburg and Volgograd. The name Ho Chi Minh, after the North Vietnamese leader. The names of other regions and cities have been considered, like many cities and islands named Georgia after some kings. Also Louisiana, The Carolinas, Lfopoldville, Elisabethville were named after other kings and queens. Some cities and islands＇ names remember explorers, like Cook, Stanley, Louren^o Marques （today Maputo, after the name of a fiver）, Brazzaville after, Pietro Paolo Savorgnan di Bra77h etc. Rio de Janeiro is named after the date of its discovery. Many place names were named after Alexander the Great, outer than the Italian Alesssandria, named after the Pope Alexander III. Many place names remember Saints, particularly in Latin America, but also in North America, like St. Francisco. The streets＇ names are many all over the world. In Rome we have streets names to politicians, like Camill Benso di Cavour, Giuseppe Mazzini and Palmiro Togliatti; writers like Alessandro Manzoni and Torquato Tasso. A name like Giuseppe Garibaldi is extremely diffused in all Italy and also in other countries.

Space and Memory in Children＇s Constitution： Approaches to School Cartography

We developed a system for monitoring the ionosphere, which uses the GNSS network located in the western part of Ukraine. The system is based on determining the ionosphere parameters from GNSS observations performed at an individual station. We are proposed algorithm for restoring the spatial position of the ionospheric state or its ionization field according to the regular definitions of the TEC parameter. The description below shows one of the possible solutions that are based on the application of the regularized approximation of functions with numerous variables. To experimentally determine the changes in the ionization field in time, we took measurements from 272 days in 2013 that were determined during the GNSS observations at 17 continuously operating stations of the ZAKPOS network. The resulting error indicators show that the developed algorithm gives consistent results for ionization field restoration that do not depend on the ionosphere state, satellites positions and changes in number of stations in the network used for computations.

OGRP --Open GNSS Receiver Protocol

In this document we describe the idea and the development of a new type of GNSS receiver. First, we have a new open format for transporting GNSS created data and this developed oriented to an object format that greatly simplifies development and allows more effective programming. The open LINUX OS allows the developer in that it can be programmed directly on the GNSS board completely new perspectives. Nevertheless, this GNSS receiver is still small and easy to handle and with low power consumption and is otherwise in accordance with the major manufacturers in nothing. He can receive and process all GNSS signals and has a very fast and robust RTK algorithm. Furthermore, you also have the possibility of their own developments to install directly on the board. This makes this product unique and gives the customer and the system integrator unprecedented freedoms and opportunities for development.

Harmonization of Spatial Discrepancies from Land-related Data and Information Using Geospatial Technologies： A Case Study of OI-Kalou Township in Nyandarua County, Kenya

This paper explores potential of Remote Sensing and Geospatial Information Systems as viable tools for data collection, processing, transformation and adjustment of cadastral data discrepancies often noted by geospatial practitioners during rasterization and vectorization of land related data. Necessary datasets were collected employing main approach/procedure of scanning, georeferencing, digitization, transformation and analysis in that order, to amalgamate and harmonize all datasets into one common projection and coordinate system （Universal Transverse Mercator （UTM） on Arc-Datum 1960）. Discrepancies in derived areas against recorded values in land registries were noted, smaller parcels exhibited smaller discrepancies and vice versa. Discrepancies were found to be directly proportional to the parcel areas/sizes although large parcels （〉 1000 m2） exhibited abnormally high discrepancies. This procedure yielded systematic discrepancies that could be minimized by use of a fifth order polynomial. Resultant residuals were found to be tolerably low and could be ignored for small parcels （〈 1000 m2）. Final outputs included automated GIS geodatabase cadastre, containing cadastral attributes harmonized to one projection and coordinate system that can be overlaid to other datasets from engineering design and construction works, geological and geotechnical investigation surveys, etc. tied to Remote Sensing data without the requirement of further transformations.

GIS-Practical Experience in the Boundaries Definition of the Platform Deep Crustal Blocks on the Studying of the Earth＇s Surface Fractal Divisibility： Example of the White Sea-Kuloi Plateau

This study examines the use of the geographic information systems （GIS） in structural geomorphology to build the model of the crust based on fractal analysis of relief. Fractal theory, developed by B. Mandelbrot, used to determination morpho-bloc divisibility of the Earth＇s surface. There is the traceable statistically recurring relief structure indicate the appropriate tiered hierarchy of crustal blocks forming the tectonic and kinematic layers. This hypothesis tested on a digital elevation model （DEM） of the White Sea-Kuloi Plateau -- an area of tectonic and magmatic activity of the Paleozoic era. Found the correlation of position the kimberlite magmatic bodies with the tectonic blocks certain depth according to a flactal analysis.

Inter-comparison of Raingauges on Rainfall Amount and Intensity Measurements in a Tropical Environment

The HKO （Hong Kong Observatory） has been carrying out an inter-comparison of automatic raingauges since 2011 for identifying raingauges that can meet the ~ 5% accuracy requirement of the WMO （World Meteorological Organization） in measuring rainfall amount. The inter-comparison was conducted at HKO＇s meteorological stations at King＇s Park and Hong Kong International Airport in Hong Kong. Two 0.1-mm resolution Pluvio-OTT weighing gauges were introduced in 2013. This type of raingauges has outperformed others in the WMO＇s field inter-comparison held between October 2007 and April 2009. The performances of 14 raingauges, comprising five different measurement methods, viz. drop-counting, weighing, tipping bucket with software correction, tipping bucket with extra pulse correction and tipping bucket without correction, were evaluated. The focus was to study their performances in rainfall intensity measurement, especially during heavy rain situations. Different high rainfall intensity episodes were selected for analysis. Among these episodes, the maximum 1-minute rainfall intensity as high as around 130 mm/hr was recorded by the Pluvio-OTT raingauges. This paper serves to conclude the 3-year （2011-2013） inter-comparison exercise for rainfall amount measurements and to provide preliminary 1-year （2013） comparison results on rainfall intensity measurements.

Geodetic Support for the Identification of Polynomial Break Points on the Mining Subsidence for GIS Applications

Currently, in the highly developed industrial world, safety and protection of human lives and their property against the negative impacts of the industry should be a priority task of each its sector, not excluding mining. The impact of mining activity on the environment is very negative industrial influence. As a result of underground mining activities in the surface creates mining subsidence. Conditioning factors to establish the extent of the movement of the surface above the mined out area are a geodetic way surveyed deformation vectors which can be derived from the processing of measurements at monitoring stations. The theory for the estimation of polynomial break points in the case of the subsidence analysis is presented. The theory was developed as a part of the kinematics analysis procedures for the evaluation of the magnesite deposit in the suburb of Kosice-Bankov on the northern outskirts of the city of Kogice （eastern SIovakia）. The subsurface abandoned mine Kosice-Bankov is located in the immediate vicinity of the recreational and tourist zone in the northern suburb of the city of Kosice. The numerical and graphical results from the break points estimation in the magnesite deposit Kosice-Bankov are presented. The obtained results from the abandoned mining area Kosice-Bankov were transferred into GIS for the needs of the municipality of the city of Kosice in order to conduct the reclamation of this mining devastated landscape.

Performance Evaluation of RTK-GNSS with Existing Sensors in Dense Urban Areas

The increasing demand for navigation and automation has led to the development of a number of accurate and precise navigation applications that make use of the GPS （Global Positioning System） and other sensors. However, GPS tends to suffer from multipath error, especially in urban environments. To overcome this problem, a method was developed for improving RTK-GPS （real-time kinematic GPS） using a low-cost IMU （inertial measurement unit） and conventional vehicle speed sensors. Additionally, RTK-GNSS （Global Navigation Satellite System） was also evaluated to improve the RTK performance using GPS, QZSS （Quasi-Zenith Satellite System） and BeiDou. In this study, it was found that a suitable measurement quality check is required to obtain better direction information. The results of the experiment demonstrate that, to some extent, our proposed method is beneficial as an alternative to the conventional RTK-GPS in an urban environment.

Geographically Weighted Regression and Secondary Variables for Mapping of Meteorological Data

GA （geostatistical analyst） is an indispensable tool to analyze various and plenty of data in GIS （geographic information system）. Spatial distribution is the most effective factor for predicting of meteorological maps at the point of performance or reliability of the model. Generally, classical interpolation methods may not be sufficient to produce accurate maps. GA is more considerable in this state. Secondary variables affect the precious of prediction models especially meteorological data mapping. In this study 245 meteorological data stations have been evaluated to produce precipitation model maps in Turkey. Long term （25 years） mean annual and monthly precipitation data from Turkish State Meteorological Service and elevation, slope and aspect values from DEM （Digital Elevation Model） were registered. OK （Ordinary Kriging）, OCK （Ordinary Co-Kriging） and GWR （Geographically Weighted Regression） have been used as a method to compare the models. With the study if there are effects of secondary variables to precipitation models have been illustrated on the prediction maps. Besides comparing statistical values, regional effects of secondary variables have been determined and illustrated on the maps numerically. As a result to define precipitation distribution spatially R2 values between measured and predicted values have been calculated 0.55 for Kriging, 0.67 for OCK and 0.86 for GWR. Cross validation indicated that GWR interpolation yields the smallest prediction error with elevation, slope and aspect. Spatial distribution of meteorological stations is also other important factor for similar studies.

A Hybrid Model to Predict Cartesian Planimetric Coordinates

Coordinates are basic needs for both geospatial and non-geospatial professionals and as a result, geodesists have the responsibility to develop methods that are applicable and practicable for determining cartesian coordinates either through transformation, conversion or prediction for the geo-scientific community. It is therefore necessary to implement mechanisms and systems that can be employed to predict coordinates in either two dimensional （2D） or three dimensional （3D） spaces. Artificial Intelligence （AI） techniques and conventional methods within the last decade have been proposed as an effective tool for modeling and forecasting in various scientific disciplines for solving majority of problems. The primary objective of this work is to compare the efficiency of artificial intelligence technique （Feed Forward Back propagation Neural Network （FFBPNN）） and conventional methods （Ordinary Least Squares （OLS）, General Least Squares （GLS）, and Total Least Squares （TLS）） in cartesian planimetric coordinate＇s prediction. In addition, a hybrid approach of conventional and artificial intelligence method thus, TLS-FFBPNN has been proposed in this study for 2D cartesian coordinates prediction. It was observed from the results obtained that FFBPNN performed significantly better than the conventional methods. However, the TLS-FFBPNN when compared with FFBPNN, OLS, GLS and TLS gave stronger and better performance and superior predictions. To further confirm the superiority of the TLS-FFBPNN the Bayesian Information Criterion was introduced. The BIC selected the TLS-FFBPNN as the optimum model for prediction.

Nature Conservation and Biodiversity Monitoring through a Spatial Data Infrastructure

One of the main concerns of the European Union environment policy is the deterioration of natural habitats and the threats posed to certain species under the Habitat Directive. With its huge diversity of plant and animal species and high level of endemism, Romania is nominated as a European biodiversity hotspot. Biodiversity is being lost at a dramatic rate unless strategically conservation measurements are taken. Halting the loss of biodiversity is regarded as a priority to the European Member States which are encouraged to work together within the same strong legislative framework in order to protect our most vulnerable species and habitat types. Romania is also in the process of developing the Spatial Data Infrastructure in response to Geographic Information 2000 Initiative launched by the European Commission in 1996 and the INSPIRE （Infrastructure for Spatial Information in Europe） initiative launched in 2001. The focus of this article is the development of the geospatial architecture framework and applications required for efficient inventory and mapping of natural habitats and wild species of community interest. Implementing a biodiversity geoportal application is seen as critical in order to help users share the geospatial information in the environment and sustainable development sectors.

A Criterion for Tsunami Hazard Assessment at the Local Scale

A criterion for tsunami hazard assessment at the local scale is proposed. It is based on travel times and water level height, calculated by the tsunami numerical model, combined with the existence or not of an easy evacuation path from the shoreline to safely high ground and evaluated by field survey. Furthermore, the 1755 Lisbon Tsunami is considered as the worst case scenario, allowing evaluating the impact of a similar scenario at Figueira da Foz municipality, Portugal. The results show that all the beaches are inundated and should be evacuated within an hour after the earthquake. Since there is safely high ground nearby most areas leading to a local tsunami hazard of＂low＂. However, the presence of unstable sand dunes that has been showing signs of collapsing at the south of Cova and Leirosa allowing the tsunami to penetrate inland, inundating the residential areas. For that reason, the local tsunami hazard is ＂moderate＂. The other area which has ＂moderate＂ classification is Cabedelo, because it does not have any coastal protection from tsunami waves, and does not have easy access to the high ground. The marina and fishing port have ＂very low＂ classification, nevertheless it is recommended that vessels evacuate to art offshore area.

The Digital Mapping of Ukrainian Soils on the Base of High Resolution Space Images

The first Ukrainian using experience of multispectral space scanning for digital soil mapping is described in this paper. Methodical approaches for detailed soil observation of Ukrainian forest regions are elaborated based on modem mapping principles. For the first time in Ukraine, digital soil maps based on GIS （geographic information system） were obtained for individual farms. In GIS based on space images and digital relief models, the medium-scale and large-scale soil maps were created by geo-statistical methods. According to elaborated methods, modem digital soil mapping should provide all combined works： remote sensing and traditional soil observations. The modem digital soil mapping should be based just on quantitative principles： on remote sensing data, geomorphologic field parameters, and chemical analyses. The methodological approaches, which were used for the first time in Ukraine during digital soil mapping by remote sensing methods, are described in this paper.

Directions of Valley Axes in Relationship to Geological Structure-Element Orientation in the Stribrne Hory Area in the Bohemian-Moravian Uplands （Czech Republic）

The purpose of this paper is to evaluate control of orientation of foliations and joints on the direction of valley axes in the Stribrne Hory area in the Bohemian-Moravian Highlands in central part of the Czech Republic. This area is predominantly built by metamorphic rocks. It is situated near the Pribyslav deep-seated fault. The data concerning of foliations, joints and valley axes were statistically analyzed and then visually compared according to their distribution using direction roses. Directions of valley axes have generally orientation of NNE-SSW, SE, E-W, NW and WNW and coincide with the system of foliations and ordinarily steep joints.

The Historical Review of the 1755 Lisbon Tsunami

The original accounts reporting the 1755 Lisbon Tsunami were compiled, focusing on the descriptions related to the tsunami parameters, damage and fatalities in the affected regions （Atlantic Northeast and Caribbean）. The accounts show the tsunami reached the southwest municipalities of Portugal in less than 30 minutes after the earthquake, and about one hour later the entire coasts of Portugal, Gulf of Cadiz （Spain） and Morocco were hit by the first tsunami waves. The tsunami took about five hours to reach Ireland and UK, and hit the Caribbean region about 9-10 hours after the earthquake. In addition, significant damage and fatalities were reported in Portugal （Peniche, the Lisbon Metropolitan Area and seven coastal areas in the south）, Spain （Cadiz） and in all Morocco coastline, including Marrakech which is located about 200 km inland. In Ireland, UK and the Caribbean minor damage was observed, and no fatalities were reported.

Integrated Elements of Early Warning Systems to Enhance Disaster Resilience in the Arab Region

The Arab region＇s coastal zones are of immense importance. Almost all Arab countries need to build up resilience for vulnerable communities and carry out proactive planning for integrated coastal zone management and development of early warning systems for vulnerable coastal areas. It is clear that through the analysis of past natural disasters, the links between the four elements （risk knowledge, monitoring and warning service, dissemination and communication, response capability） of EWS （early warning systems） are weak, leading to a reduced effectiveness of the system. The focus is on the development of technology more than on members of the community at risk. There is also weakness in institutional cooperation and one of the main challenges is in early warning. This problem has encouraged the researcher to propose a guideline for early warning of natural disasters and increase its effectiveness by involving members of the community and improving institutional cooperation between stakeholders. The objective of this paper is to identify and assess some of the main areas vulnerable to sea level rise in the Arab world. A survey of case studies in the UAE （United Arab Emirates） and Egypt is undertaken. The main objectives are to identify vulnerabilities from coastal flooding, assess adaptation measures and point out the urgent need to build up institutional and human capacities in response to the problem, identify gaps, points of strength and points of weakness in early warning systems and discuss options for adaptation and the need for implementing major dements of the EWS.

A Comparative Study of Digital Terrain Data for Visibility Analysis in the Planning and Management of Scenic Resources

A DEM （digital elevation model） was once used to calculate viewsheds in the early days of GIS applications. The emergence of LiDAR （light detection and ranging） data which are likely to have higher spatial resolutions than traditional DEMs contributed to the improvements of calculation accuracy greatly. The objective of this study is to validate that the LiDAR data calculate and predict a viewshed better than the traditional low-resolution DEMs with 10 m and 30 m spatial resolutions. Using digital terrain data acquired for part of the Nez Perce National Forest in Idaho, calculation accuracy for viewsheds was scrutinized in depth. Four hundred and eighty four （484） observation points were selected randomly to compute viewsheds from the 1-m pixel, bare-earth LiDAR data and from the traditional 10 m and 30 m DEMs. The comparison of their RMSEs （root-mean-squared-error） values proves the newer generation of digital terrain data produces more accurate viewsheds than ones generated from the traditional DEMs. Analyses of variance and t-tests show the viewsheds calculated from various terrain models are statistically different. Therefore, findings from this study suggest that high-quality LiDAR data, if available, should be used for decision-making in planning for and the management of the scenic resources.

The Use of Different Data Sets in 3D Modelling

The needs for photo-realistic modelling of the complete details, and geometrically accurate 3D models are growing rapidly in several fields, especially in engineering and cultural heritage documentation. This paper explored the geometry of the Pictometry images （vertical and oblique） and the possibility of using this imagery in 3D modelling to produce photo-realistic and accurate models. In addition, merging terrestrial imagery with Pictometry imagery to get more ground level details has been investigated. All work has been carried out using the available software packages at the IESSG （Institute of Engineering Surveying and Space Geodesy） and using data provided by Blom Aerofilms Ltd. The results of the aerial triangulation of different Pictometry blocks showed that high quality image measurements have been achieved for all the image blocks. Extraction of 3D geometry for all buildings in the study area has been performed using both vertical Pictometry imagery and UltraCamD imagery. The successful combining of vertical and oblique Pictometry images provided an excellent opportunity to produce an efficient method of high quality urban model texturing. The integration of terrestrial images of building facades （whose texture needs enhancement） with the combined aerial imagery block has been successfully and automatically performed.

Predictive Analysis of Landslide Susceptibility with GIS-DEMs in Uyo, South Eastern Nigeria

Landslides are ubiquitous geomorphic features in the loose/weakly cemented soils formed from the coastal plains sands in different parts of southeastern Nigeria due to widespread gully erosion resulting from infrequent occurrence of high intensity and prolonged rainstorms during the peak of wet season （June-September）. In this area, landslides occur mostly as earth movement, mud flow, and debris flows on slopes previously weakened by flood water. GIS （Geographic Information System） was employed as a system with advanced geo-modeling capabilities combined with field observation which were used in this study to map potential areas of landslides in Uyo town, Akwa Ibom State in southeastern Nigeria. The study generated a landslide zonation map highlighting areas of different degrees of susceptibility elevation in meters. Slope surface in degrees was also generated and reclassified into three slope classes （uniform, gentle and steep） using the same reclassification algorithm. The result indicates that 89,583 m2 representing 10.59% of the total catchment of 845,918 m2 is highly susceptible to landslides.