论庄子式的个人主义——兼论东、西方“个人主义”传统之异同

中国传统文化中并非没有个人主义传统。庄子强调个人精神自由和个体人格独立,对后代有深远影响。这种庄子式的个人主义有其赖以产生的社会基础,也是建立在庄子对于人作为个体生存于社会中所面临的一些基本矛盾与困境的深刻洞察思考之上的。但它与西方意义上的个人主义相比有一些不同之处。它强调个人精神自由而忽视个人实际利益,主张逃避社会责任而不积极参与公共事务,并且有脱离大众的高蹈主义倾向,总的来说是一种消极逃避的而非积极进取的个人主义。

An Analysis of the Great Power Strategy of India's Modi Government

Over the past two years, India's Modi government has demonstrated the following features: focusing on the goals of becoming a great power and shaping India's South Asian dominance, expanding the scope of diplomatic strategy, emphasizing the role of soft power and focusing on self-development as well as external environment. Modi's great power strategy is deeply influenced by the Indian realistic international political outlook and, to a certain extent, reflects the governing philosophy of the Bharatiya Janata Party. The great power strategy is Modi's governing foundation and governing style, embedding Modi distinctive personal style. Under the influence of the great power strategy, China and India have increased their economic cooperation scope, widening the forms of public diplomacy, with an obvious geopolitical collision; India is taking more measures to check China.

Redefine Chinese collectivism/individualism

Chinese culture, which has been regarded as a collectivistic one by such great heads as G. Hofstede and Triands for a long time, seldom receives challenge on its very nature. The authors, however, found at least three critical mistakes in Hofstede＇s work, and raised their argument that Chinese culture is not a collectivistic one, but a ＂shi＂ culture which relies heavily on context. The split of mind is the fundamental cause of this ＂shi＂ culture.

Organizational Citizenship Behavior,, Career Commitment and Collectivism in UAE A Paradigm Shift

UAE is considered as collectivistic as per many major studies on culture. The present study aims to find the effect of cultural orientatiotr---like individualism or collectivism on a person＇s organizational citizenship behavior （OCB） There are many studies related to collectivism and organization citizenship behavior as well as organization commitment and OCB. But most of these studies were done in a western context and is done years back. The present generation of UAE having undergone studies in management which is highly dominated by western philosophies and due to their interaction with diverse nationalities have evolved in their behavior. At this point it is necessary to investigate whether there is any shift in their behavior pattems based on collectivism. Career commitment has grown among UAE nationals in recent years due to high level of commitment from the government towards education and employment. Since OCB is more of an altruistic tendency within an individual, the study looks into the cultural difference within an individual like individualism or collectivism and its relationship with a person＇s OCB level among the employees in UAE. Career commitment is taken as a another variable. The study has made some interesting findings which show a shift from the previous studies that show a direct relationship using correlation analysis, between collectivism and organization citizenship behavior. The study found that there is no relationship between individualism or collectivism and organization citizenship behavior, but there is some relationship between career commitment and organization citizenship behavior factor loyal boosterism.

Yang Zhu＇s ＂Guiji＂ Yangsheng and Its Modem Relevance

Condemned by Mencius （ca.372-289 BCE） as selfishness （weiwo, 为我）, Yang Zhu＇s yangsheng philosophy in China is traditionally depicted as a philosophy of egoism and hedonism. In contrast, Yang Zhu （fl.ca.370-350 BCE） is described as an ＂early liberal or individualist＂ hero in the Western Discussion of Chinese Philosophy. Yang Zhu may not be a liberal or individualist hero as portrayed by the West, but surely he should not be depicted as a promoter of egoism as Mencius did. Both John Emerson and A.C. Graham are probably right when they claimed that Yang Zhu was a revolutionary thinker of his own time; and ＂Yang Zhu＇s intervention for the Chinese thinking world had provoked a metaphysical crisis which had threatened the basic assumptions of Confucianism and Mohism and set them into a new course＂ （A.C. Graham 1978）. From my reading, Yang Zhu＇s influence on Chinese philosophy had been and will be even greater, although his philosophy as a whole was not practiced by Chinese society in the past due to the dominance of Confucianism. Yet as the first person who clearly emphasized nourishing of life for individuals and the first theory that rooted morality into xing （性, human nature）, Yang Zhu＇s yangsheng philosophy had indeed through history made a huge contribution to Chinese nurturing life tradition, and had great potential in providing inspiration to modern moral thinking. Many discussions initiated or developed by Yang Zhu and his followers have influenced both Confucianism and Daoism profoundly. His idea of nourishing life was not only inherited and developed by Zhuangzi and later Daoist religion from life preservation perspective, but also by Mencius and Xunzi from moral cultivation perspective. As a doctrine that has shown more and more relevance to modern society, people can find many inspirations from Yang Zhu＇s answer to the following questions： What is the aim of human life？ What is the right attitude toward life and death？ What is human nature？ What is the relationship between life nourishment and individual freedom？ Why nourishing one＇s own life should be as important as nourishing that of others？ What is the difference between humans and animals？ Why living a natural life is so important for human beings？ Based on materials collected from various Chinese sources directly related to Yang Zhu＇s school, especially the chapter entitled as ＂Yang Zhu＂ from the book of Liezi, this paper will explore essential features of Yang Zhu＇s yangsheng philosophy and its relevance to modern society. As ＂guiji＂ （贵已, cherishing oneself） is the core of Yang Zhu＇s yangsheng philosophy, discussion of this paper will focus on what Yang Zhu＇s ＂guiji＂ means, why Yang Zhu＇s ＂guiji＂ is not ＂weiwo＂ （为我, for oneself）, and how Yang Zhu＇s ＂guiji＂ yangsheng is relevant to modern society.

Prevalence and Patterns of Divorce in Vietnam： Tradition, Modernity, and Individualism

In Vietnam, divorce traditionally was considered scandalous for women, so there was a strong pressure against divorce, especially for women. While divorce has long been culturally discouraged and limited, divorce has been rapidly increasing after the renovation policy in late 1980s with alternative causes, consequences, etc Modernization is a process of transforming ＂traditional＂ society to ＂modern＂ one, in order to achieve economic development and growth, to innovate politics and to enhance their social structure towards a political, social, and economic system similar to those of western developed countries. In the field of marriage, family, and kinship, modernization process experiences the maintenance of traditional values and the appearance of the new modern values. This paper aims to examine trend and correlates of divorce and to identify social and cultural factors influencing the divorce decision, using data of divorce profiles of one district court in 10 years （i.e., 2000-2009） with total divorce profiles analyzed are 2,033 cases, of which 499 divorce couples in a rural district and 1,534 divorced couples in an urban area.

＂Actual Experience＂＂ Correcting Misconceptions Through Analyzing Harriet Wilson＇s Our Nig

African-American writers during the 19th century wrote in the shadow of the prominent romance, sentimental, and domestic fiction. Harriet Wilson＇s Our Nig （1859） reflects an ＂alternative social character＂, for the female protagonist suffers racism in the free North, because she is a mulatto child. Through depicting the life of free blacks, who supposedly lives a better life than Southern slaves, Wilson exposes how she has actually lived and sensed life in antebellum America. According to Raymond Williams （2011）, there are two kinds of literary writings. The first represents the general tendency of the age, and he calls it ＂dominant social character＂; representing the majority content of both the public writing and speaking. But, another different literary writing lives in its shadow; one that usually leads the conflicts of the time. It is the ＂alternative social character＂; the literature of the victims of repression and marginalization, produced by the lower class, women, and blacks. They reflected how they were dehumanized, and exposed their suffering and abasement. They also aimed to prove individualism. The novel reveals how racism in the North could be worse than the slavery of the South. This paper shows Wilson deviation from the ＂her brethren＂ in writing her novel. It unveils significant truths concerning black women＇s status in antebellum America. It discusses how the author attempts to correct certain misconceptions through her female character

Ch＇en Tu-hsiu： A Powerful Voice for Modern China

Ch＇en Tu-hsiu （1879-1942）, co-founder of the Chinese Communist Party （CCP）, was one of the major intellectual figures who strongly advocated anti-Confucianism during the May Fourth Movement in 1919 on the basis that in order for China to survive in the modem world, it was necessary for China to reject the totally outdated tradition of Confucianism and adopt wholeheartedly Western methods and ideas, such as individualism and even Christianity. While the hard-line conservatives viewed that the way to reform China was in upholding Confucianism as unifying factor, Ch＇en viewed Confucianism as a formless philosophy that kept China back from the process of modernization.

Intergenerational Justice： Rights versus Fairness

Among various views on intergenerational justice, the most widely accepted theory invokes the rights of future generations. However, the rights theory seems to suffer from the non-identity problem addressed by Derek Parfit. Some rights theorists attempt to circumvent the problem by examining causal links between actions taken by preceding generations and their effects on succeeding ones, Others try to do so by replacing future individual rights with such collective rights. This paper argues that both individualist and collectivist versions of the rights theory fail to supply grounds for intergenerational concern. The paper then offers an alternative theory that refines the idea of duty of fair play developed by John Rawls and applies it to the context of intergenerational relationships. To begin with, I identify several characteristics of posterity and explicate the adverse implications these characteristics have for other major theories of intertemporal concern than the rights theory. Next, different versions of the rights theory are closely examined from the perspective of the non-identity problem. Then, I offer an alternative argument for caring about future people, which is founded on the idea of intergenerational fair play. This paper concludes by noting that the fairness theory, unlike its rivals, does not face the non-identity problem or any other problems stemming from the features of posterity previously identified.

On the Confrontation Between Masculinism and Feminism in The Great Gatsby

In The Great Gatsby, Fitzgerald depicts the conflicts and contradictions between men and women about society, family, love, and money, literally mirroring the patriarchal society constantly challenged by feminism in the 1920s of America. This paper intends to compare the features of masculinism and feminism in three aspects： gender, society, and morality. Different identifications of gender role between men and women lead to female protests against male superiority and pursuits of individual liberation. Meanwhile, male unshaken egotism and gradually expanded individualism of women enable them both in lack of sound moral standards. But compared with the female, male moral pride drives them with much more proper moral judge, which reflects Fitzgerald＇s support of the masculine society. Probing into the confrontation between masculinism and feminism, it is beneficial for further study on how to achieve equal coexistence and harmony between men and women.

Condition to Gain More Profits and Promote Cooperation by Tit-for-Tat Strategy in Finite and Repeated Prisoner＇s Dilemma

As a basic study to prevent accidents or concealment caused by violation of rules or regulations （which are regarded as uncooperative behavior）, an attempt was made to clarify the condition necessary for promoting cooperation when the tit-for-tat strategy is adopted in the finite and repeated prisoner＇s dilemma situations. A mathematical model, in which three different strategies （tit-for-tat, all defection （individualism）, and all cooperation （altruism）） exist, was constructed in order to demonstrate the condition that can promote cooperative behaviors. As a result of an agent-agent computer simulation, it was shown that the tit-for-tat strategy promoted more cooperation than other strategies when the number of agents adopting the tit-for-tat strategy was dominant in the population and the discount parameter was larger. Next, it was explored how the tit-for-tat strategy in the finite and repeated prisoner＇s dilemma promotes cooperation using a human-agent computer simulation. In other words, the condition under which cooperative behavior is encouraged was clarified. In the simulation experiment, the discount rate was controlled as an experimental variable. As well as the first experiment above, the dominant occupation of the tit-for-tat strategy was found to lead to the promoted cooperation. Concerning the effect of discount parameter on the cooperative behavior, the cooperation rate tended to increase with the increase of discount parameter only when the t-t-for-tat strategy is dominant. As a whole, the type of change of discount parameter did not affect the cooperation rate.

Theoretical Perspective of Social Entrepreneurship： A Study of Determinants of Social Entrepreneurship in the Context of Saudi Arabia

The present paper discusses the different theories on entrepreneurship in general and social entrepreneurship in particular to investigate the different determinants of social entrepreneurship in the context of Saudi Arabia. The present research is a conceptual study. The data were collected to analyze the entrepreneurship theories in Saudi Arabia＇s context. The data related to entrepreneurship spirit, perception of society towards entrepreneurship, and other macroeconomic indicators are collected from different research journals, websites of different corporate houses, and government sources to analyze the social entrepreneurship theories, such as failure thesis, interdependence theories, welfare state theory, supply-side theory, entrepreneurship education, etc.. The theoretical hypothesis of interdependence theory, entrepreneurship spirit, and general education and the theoretical analysis of this paper in light of Saudi Arabia are in line with the theory. But the hypothesis generated out of failure thesis theory, welfare state theory, entrepreneurship education, and individualistic and collective society culture is not in line with these theories.

Political Satire in the Chinese Blogosphere： The Case of Wang Xiaofeng

This paper is built on the study of one key blog-Wang Xiaofeng＇s No Guess （2006-2011） to explore how a Chinese intellectual uses his satirical skills in the blogosphere, how his blog reshapes the form of political culture, and how the blogosphere through such interventions proceeds in the development of political communications in China. Two key issues are addressed in the paper. Firstly, drawing on the concept of ＂blogging culture＂, the author argues that blogging has potentially reconfigured political information around people＇s everyday lives, offering alternative modes of ＂public talk＂. The case of Wang Xiaofeng shows that satire can be used to make fun of the state, policies, and established ideologies, improving a previously restricted communicative environment toward more open. Secondly, the rise in the value placed on individualism in China, and the rise of peer-to-peer media mean that bloggers who pursue self-expression simultaneously through such self-expression. In other words, Wang Xiaofeng＇s No Guess blog demonstrates that individual opinions across the blogosphere have implicitly challenged political discourse; however, they always have to struggle with an ongoing censorship, negotiate an unstable discursive space and thus, can only enjoy a limited success.

Holism and the Individual： A Theoretical Conundrum

This article deals with one of the theoretical dilemmas of contemporary sociology： the dualism of the individualistic and holistic approaches. One of the most famous attempts to overcome this dualism is the structuration theory of Anthony Giddens, and alongside this is found the conception of social realism of Roy Bhaskar and Margaret Archer. Their efforts to link individualistic and holistic approaches are based on a varifocal attempt to explain the theoretical issues from both individualistic and holistic perspectives. The author of this article believes that there is an alternative solution to this problem, where both perspectives are ＂blended＂ in a theoretical explanation demonstrating that the concepts which we use in sociological theory--actor, action and structure--are inherently of dualistic nature, i.e., they are ＂duplex＂.

Human Nature, Personality, and Human Freedom in Feng Qi＇s On Wisdom

In creating his theory of wisdom, Feng Qi emphasizes that Chinese Marxist philosophy should move from the theory of knowledge to a discourse on wisdom and concentrate on Chinese people＇s living world and life existence, so as to provide a spiritual home for the Chinese people and thereby highlight the importance of human nature, personality, and human freedom in Chinese Marxist philosophy. In researching human nature, he expatiates on the problems of mind （xin） and human nature （xing）, natural instincts （tian xing） and virtues （de xing）, and general character and individual character; in emphasizing personality, he puts forward the idea that the ideal personality is ＂free personality as a member of ordinary people;＂ in probing into the problems of human freedom, he explains how to get freedom from the basis of practical materialism. This philosophical inquiry enriches Chinese Marxist philosophy＇s researches into the understanding of humanity and the connection of philosophy with the living world, which opens up a new area of development in the sinicization of Marxist philosophy.

“We Were Not at School Today”: First-Person Pronouns and Discursive Construction of Identities by Emerging Middle-Class Chinese Parents

In the process of China’s dynamic social changes over the past decades, the young-parent identity construction of an emerging middle class and the resulting changes of social-cultural values in this context have attracted the attention of academic research in recent years. With the focus on the discursive construction of parent identity, this study examines the utilization of first-person pronouns in three different interactional contexts, namely, parent-teacher interaction, parent-parent interaction, and parent-child interaction. The study further explores the patterns of alignment between the parents and their children, parents and teachers of their children, and peer parents during the process of identity construction, followed by a discussion of the implication that young, emerging middleclass Chinese parents fundamentally shape themselves as "concerned" and "involved" parents and the change of values between collectivity and agency. The study not only demonstrates the dynamic and pluralistic nature of parent identity but also deepens our understanding of the indexical roles of first-person pronouns in the discursive construction of emerging middle-class Chinese parent identity and its relationship with the recent social-cultural changes in the Chinese context.

Individualisation Is Eroding Traditions Worldwide： A Comparison between Europe and China

There is in principle a close connection between individualisation and the state in both the European and Chinese contexts. But this connection can assume entirely different forms; indeed it can even point in diametrically opposed directions. From a sociological point of view it is important to distinguish between individualism as an ideology and individualisation as a real process resting on institutions. Individualisation means institutionalised individualism. By institutionalised individualism is not meant only a social ideology or an individual mode of perception. Rather, it designates central institutions of modem society such as, for example, civil and social basic rights, all of which are addressed to the individual; alternatively, it refers to the need, mediated through training and the labour market, to develop one＇s own biography and to extricate oneself from collective regulations; but it also refers to the neohberal global market regime which forces individuals to realise their self-interest as the innermost core of rationality.