Crushing Mechanism of Spherical Tungsten Alloy Fragments Penetrate Thick Steel Plate Target

Against protection requirements for high-speed fragments on the ground weapons,we carried out the research work of crushing mechanism at different impact speeds ofφ8.7 mm spherical tungsten alloy,the penetration to 603 armor steel was completed by 20 mm ballistic gun,and the ANSYS/LS-DYNA software was used to complete the numerical calculation of the penetration.We find that there are different crushing mechanisms of spherical tungsten alloy with different speeds and low speed,the crushing mechanism of fragment is mainly controlled by overall plastic deformation,shearing stripping,and squeezing at a high pressure and a high speed.The crushing mechanism will have a spallation phenomenon in addition to the crushing mechanism under high pressure.

MICROSTRUCTURE OF REGENERATED HIGH DENSITY TUNGSTEN ALLOYS MADE BY OXIDATION-REDUCTION

The mechanical properties of regenerated W-alloys relating to the chemical purity and size of reclamation powders of 93W-Ni-Fe-Co(Mn)alloy chips,the structure of main constituents of the powders,as well as microstrueture and fractograph of regenerated W-alloys made by the reclamation powders,composition of W particle and binder phase,content,structure and distribution of main impurity elements have been studied by means of optical microscope, SEM,XRES.XRD,TEM,AES and chemical analysis.The feasibility of oxidation-reduc- tion process for reclamation and the possibility of praetical application of regenerated W-al- loys have been discussed.

Study on the Dynamic Behavior of Tungsten Alloy at Strain Rates up to 5 000 s^(-1)

The dynamic stress-strain curves of 93% tungsten (W) alloy in the forged state at strain rates up to (5 000 s^(-1)) and in the temperature range from 223 K to 473 K were measured with the split Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB) technique. Based on the above experimental data a dynamic constitutive equation considering the effects of strain rate, temperature and the special microstructure of such a kind of W-alloy was proposed. The numerical simulation for the experimental process with this constitutive equation was also carried out, the results show that the constitutive relationship constructed in this paper is very satisfactory for representing the dynamic responsive behavior of material..

Pore Formation Mechanism in W-C Hard Coatings Using Directed Energy Deposition on Tungsten Alloy

Porosity is a common phenomenon and can significantly hinder the quality of the coating.Here,the pore formation mechanism and the characteristics of the single tracks of the W-C coating using directed energy deposition(DED)are systematically investigated.The forming quality of the tracks,the distribution of the pores,and the elemental distribution near the pores are analyzed by the observations of the cross-sections of the tracks.The temperature field of the melt pool is discussed comprehensively to reveal the pore formation mechanism.The results confirm that Ni and Co evaporated during the DED process due to the high temperature of the melt pool.Pores were continuously produced adjacent to the fusion line when the melt pool was about to solidify since the temperature at the solidification front was higher than the boiling point of Ni.The vaporization area at the fusion line was proposed,where Ni could also evaporate at the time the melt pool started to solidify.The relationship between the solidification rate,the size of the vaporization area and the DED parameters(laser power and scanning speed)was established to discuss the causes of severe pores above the fusion line.This work contains a practical guide to reduce or eliminate the porosity in the coating preparation process on the surface of the tungsten alloy.

Properties and microstructure of oxide dispersion strengthened tungsten alloy prepared by liquid-phase method:a review

The addition of the second phase into tungsten can significantly refine the grain size of tungsten alloys,and also play a role in dispersion strengthening,thus improving the properties of tungsten alloy.As a preparation method of tungsten alloy powder,liquid-phase method avoids the disadvantage of mechanical alloying,and the obtained powder composition is accurate and controllable,with high purity and excellent uniformity.At present,the second phase particles used for dispersion strengthening tungsten alloys are mainly composed of oxides.Oxide particles can be synthesized and precipitated in nitrate solution through in situ chemical reaction,and are uniformly distributed in composite powder by mixing and stirring.Finally,the oxide dispersion strengthened tungsten alloy(ODS-W)was obtained by reduction and sintering.Liquid-phase methods for preparing ODS-W alloys include azeotropic distillation,sol-gel methods,freeze-drying,hydrothermal synthesis,spray-drying,etc.In this paper,several liquid-phase methods for preparing tungsten alloy composite powder precursors are reviewed,and their latest research progresses are discussed.In addition,the morphologies and properties of tungsten alloys prepared by different methods are compared,which provides guidance for preparing high-performance tungsten alloys.

Influence of the attitude of cylindrical tungsten alloy fragment on the ability of penetrating thin metal target plate

The cylindrical tungsten alloy fragment is often prefabricated in the directional warhead to improve the killing ability or interception ability of the warhead.To study the influence of the attitude of fragments on the ability to penetrate thin metal target plates,theoretical calculation,and numerical simulation are used to study the ultimate penetration velocity of cylindrical tungsten alloy fragments with different aspect ratios impacting thin metal target plates vertically with a different attitude.The angle between the axis of a cylindrical tungsten alloy fragment and the normal direction of the target plate is defined as the attitude angle of the fragment perpendicular to the target plate.It is found that when the attitude angle changes from 0°to 90°,the ultimate penetration velocity of fragments increases first and then decreases.When the length-to-diameter ratio of fragments is 1.0,1.2,and 1.5,the relative errors between the minimum and maximum values of the ultimate penetration velocity are about 11.99%,15.75%,and 14.35%,respectively.The ultimate penetration velocity of fragments increases with the increase of the projection area of fragments on the target plate.

Effect of Strain Rate on Ultimate Strength and Fractograph in Tungsten Alloy

The effect of strain rate on ultimate strength and fractograph was investigated for tungsten alloy with four different technologies. As the strain rate rises, the ultimate strength increases and morphology of fracture surface gradually transits from detachment of interface between W pellets and matrices to cleavage of W pellets. Meanwhile, low strength tungsten alloy has higher sensitivity to strain rate.

Variation of the mechanical properties of tungsten heavy alloys tested at different temperatures

The high-temperature mechanical properties of 95W-3.5Ni-1.5Fe and 95W-4.5Ni-0.5Co alloys were investigated in the temperature range of room temperature to1100℃. The yield strength and tensile strengths declined gradually, and the ductility of both alloys increased as the testing temperature was increased to 300℃. All the three properties reached a plateau at temperatures between 300 and 500℃ in the case of 95W-3.5Ni-l.5Fe and at temperatures between 350 and 700℃ in the case of 95W-4.5Ni-0.5Co. Thereafter, the ductility as well as yield and tensile strengths decreased considerably.

Mathematical Correlation for Tungsten-Based Alloy Nanopowder to Determine the Relation between Temperature Time and Weight under Certain Temperatures

High temperature treatment of tungsten alloy of W-5wt.% TM （transition metals, TM = Ni, Fe, Cu, Co） nanopowder was run under different temperatures to cover the oxidation rate at different temperatures. The correlation was developed for certain temperatures to find an equation for the relation between time and weight. The thermal treatment was done for different quantities at certain times. The proposed equation studies the correlation between temperature, time, and weight. For each temperature, a number of points were recorded from the measured oxidation curve. The shape of the curves is well-represented in this paper. The final results will present the highest temperature, the maximum weight, and the maximum time for full oxidation at high and low temperatures.

Ultrafine Grain Tungsten Heavy Alloys with Excellent Performance Prepared by Spark Plasma Sintering

Ultrafine grain tungsten heavy alloys (WHAs) were successfully produced from the nano-crystalline powders using spark plasma sintering.The present study mainly discussed the effects of sintering temperature on the density,microstructure and mechanical properties of the alloys.The relative density of 98.12% was obtained at 1 050 ℃,and the tungsten grain size is about 871 nm.At 1 000 ℃-1 200 ℃,the mechanical properties of the alloys tend to first rise and then goes down.After SPS,the alloy exhibits improved hardness (84.3 HRA at 1 050 ℃) and bending strength (987.16 MPa at 1 100 ℃),due to the ultrafine-grained microstructure.The fracture mode after bending tests is mainly characterized as intergranular or intragranular fracture of W grains,interfacial debonding of W grains-binding phase and ductile tearing of binding phase.The EDS analysis reveals a certain proportion of solid solution between W and Ni-Fe binding phase.The good mechanical properties of the alloys can be attributed to grain refinement and solid solution strengthening.

Adiabatic shear banding of hot-extruded tungsten heavy alloy under cryogenic temperature

The effect of cryogenic temperature on adiabatic shear banding (ASBing) of tungsten heavy alloy (WHA) processed by hot-hydrostatic ex-trusion was investigated.Results show that,when the initial temperature is decreased,the dynamic flow stress,the critical failure time,and the dynamic failure energy of specimens show an increasing tendency,while the susceptibility to ASB of WHA shows a decreasing tendency,which is characterized by decreased shear strain and increased width of shear bands.Microstructure analysis shows that the number of mi-crocracks within ASB exhibits an increasing tendency with decreased initial temperature,and the dynamic recrystallization (DRX) process within ASB is evidently suppressed at the lower temperature.As a result of the lower temperature,the motion and rearrangement of disloca-tion are effectively suppressed,which is mainly responsible for the incomplete DRX process within ASB and decreases susceptibility to ASB.

Application of the Backpropagation Neural Network Method in Designing Tungsten Heavy Alloy

The model describing the dependence of the mechanical properties on the chemical composition and as deformation techniques of tungsten heavy alloy is established by the method of improved the backpropagation neural network. The mechanical properties＇ parameters of tungsten alloy and deformation techniques for tungsten alloy are used as the inputs. The chemical composition and deformation amount of tungsten alloy are used as the outputs. Then they are used for training the neural network. At the same time, the optimal number of the hidden neurons is obtained through the experiential equations, and the varied step learning method is adopted to ensure the stability of the training process. According to the requirements for mechanical properties, the chemical composition and the deformation condition for tungsten heavy alloy can be designed by this artificial neural network system.

Evaluation of ultra-fine grained tungsten under transient high heat flux by high-intensity pulsed ion beam

Pure tungsten, oxide dispersion strengthened tungsten and carbide dispersion strengthened tungsten were fabricated by high-energy ball milling and spark plasma sintering process. In order to evaluate the properties of the tungsten alloys under transient high heat flues, four tungsten samples with different grain sizes were tested by high-intensity pulsed ion beam with a heat flux as high as 160 MW/（m^2·s^-1/2）. Compared with the commercial tungsten, the surface modification of the oxide dispersion strengthened tungsten by high-intensity pulsed ion beam is completely different. The oxide dispersion strengthened tungsten shows inferior thermal shock response due to the low melting point second phase of Ti and Y2O3, which results in the surface melting, boiling bubbles and cracking. While the carbide dispersion strengthened tungsten shows better thermal shock response than the commercial tungsten.

Effects of doping route on microstructure and mechanical properties of W−1.0wt.%La2O3 alloys

A comparative study was conducted by using solution combustion synthesis with three different doping routes(liquid-liquid(WL10), liquid-solid(WLNO) and solid-solid(WLO)) to produce nanoscale powders and further fabricate the ultrafine-grained W-1.0 wt.%La2O3 alloys by pressureless sintering. Compared with pure tungsten, W-1.0 wt.%La2O3 alloys exhibit ultrafine grains and excellent mechanical properties. After sintering, the average grain size of the WLO sample is larger than that of WL10 and WLNO samples;the microhardness values of WL10 and WLNO samples are similar but larger than the value of WLO sample. The optimized La2O3 particles are obtained in the WL10 sample after sintering at 1500 ℃ with the minimum mean size by comparing with WLNO and WLO samples, which are uniformly distributed either at grain boundaries or in the grain interior with the sizes of(57±29.7) and(27±13.1) nm, respectively. This study exhibits ultrafine microstructure and outperforming mechanical properties of the W-1.0 wt.%La2O3 alloy via the liquid-liquid doping route, as compared with conventionally-manufactured tungsten materials.

Effect of carburization on microstructure and rolling contact fatigue property of 95W-3.4Ni-1.6Fe heavy alloy

95W?3.4Ni?1.6Fe heavy alloy was carburized by pack carburization. Microstructure and hardness of the carburized alloywere investigated by SEM, EDS XRD. Effect of carburization on the rolling contact fatigue (RCF) property of the alloy was studied.The results showed that the carburized layer was composed of the outer, porous WC layer and the modified subsurface layer witheach W grain surrounded by a WC shell. Carburization not only decreased the RCF performance of the alloy but also aggravated thewear of the counter balls. The untreated alloy was damaged by two modes of spalling and delamination under RCF condition. Thesubsurface main crack of the untreated alloy initiated where the maximum shear stress existed and preferentially propagated alongthe W?W interfaces. Spalling was the main failure mode of the carburized alloys, and the crumbling WC particles intensified theabrasion of the carburized surface.

Microstructure and properties of hydrophobic films derived from Fe-W amorphous alloy

Amorphous metals are totally different from crystalline metals in regard to atom arrangement. Amorphous metals do not have grain boundaries and weak spots that crystalline materials contain, making them more resistant to wear and corrosion. In this study, amorphous Fe-W alloy films were first prepared by an electroplating method and were then made hydrophobic by modification with a water repellent （heptadecafluoro-1,1,2,2-tetradecyl） trimethoxysilane. Hierarchical micro-nano structures can be obtained by slightly oxidizing the as-deposited alloy, accompanied by phase transformation from amorphous to crystalline during heat treatment. The mi-cro-nano structures can trap air to form an extremely thin cushion of air between the water and the film, which is critical to producing hydrophobicity in the film. Results show that the average values of capacitance, roughness factor, and impedance for specific surface areas of a 600°C heat-treated sample are greater than those of a sample treated at 500°C. Importantly, the coating can be fabricated on various metal substrates to act as a corrosion retardant.

Effect of benzaldehyde on the electrodeposition and corrosion properties of Ni–W alloys

The effect of different concentrations of benzaldehyde on the electrodeposition of Ni–W alloy coatings on a mild steel substrate from a citrate electrolyte was investigated in this study. The electrolytic alkaline bath(p H 8.0) contained stoichiometric amounts of nickel sulfate, sodium tungstate, and trisodium citrate as precursors. The corrosion resistance of the Ni–W-alloy-coated specimens in 0.2 mol/L H2SO4 was studied using various electrochemical techniques. Tafel polarization studies reveal that the alloy coatings obtained from the bath containing 50 ppm benzaldehyde exhibit a protection efficiency of 95.33%. The corrosion rate also decreases by 21.5 times compared with that of the blank. A higher charge-transfer resistance of 1159.40 ?·cm2 and a lower double-layer capacitance of 29.4 μF·cm-2 further confirm the better corrosion resistance of the alloy coating. X-ray diffraction studies reveal that the deposits on the mild steel surface are consisted of nanocrystals. A lower surface roughness value(Rmax) of the deposits is confirmed by atomic force microscopy.

Effects of Cobalt on the Sintering Behavior of Mechanically Activated Tungsten Powder

Tungsten alloys were prepared with mechanically activated powder added microelement cobalt in order to improve the process and properties of alloys. Properties of alloys such as density, hardness and bending strength were measured. The results show that through mechanical activation, cobalt can accelerate the sintering process of these alloys By the combination of mechanical activation and adding microelement cobalt, tungsten alloys with higher density and better properties can be obtained.

Morphology and microstructure characterization of 95W-3.5Ni-1.5Fe powder prepared by mechanical alloying

The mechanism of mechanical solid-state reactions for formation of tungsten heavy alloy powder was discussed. A highenergy ball mill operating at room temperature was used for preparing tungsten heavy alloy powders, starting from elemental tungsten （W）, nickel （Ni）, and iron （Fe） powders. X-ray diffraction （XRD）, particle size analyzer, scanning electron microscopy （SEM）, and transmission electron microscopy （TEM） were used to follow the progress of the mechanical solid-state reaction of W, Ni, and Fe powders. These morphological studies revealed three stages in the milling process. In the first stage, the particle deformation changes the irregular structure of the as-received powder particles to flattened morphology, and the average particle size increases. In the second stage, the powder is sufficiently deformed and the tendency to fracture predominates over welding, and the particle size decreases. With continuous milling, the system reaches steady state, and relatively small and uniform particle size distribution is obtained after 20 h of milling.

Experimental study on WFeNiMo high-entropy alloy projectile penetrating semi-infinite steel target

The appearance of high-entropy alloys (HEAs) makes it possible for a material to possess both high strength and high ductility. It is with great potential to apply HEAs under extreme conditions such as in the penetration process. In this paper, experiments of WFeNiMo HEA and tungsten heavy alloy (WHA) projectiles penetrating medium-carbon steel were conducted by using the ballistic gun and two-stage light-gas gun that can accelerate projectiles to impact velocities ranging from 1162 m/s to 2130 m/s. Depth of penetration (DOP) at elevated impact velocities of HEA and WHA projectiles were obtained firstly. Combined with the macroscopic and microscopic analysis of the residual projectiles, the transition of the penetration mode of the WFeNiMo HEA projectile was identified systemically. The experimental results indicated that the penetration mode of the HEA projectile changes from self-sharpening to mushrooming with the increase of impact velocity, while for the WHA projectile, the penetration mode is always mushrooming. The microstructure of the residual HEA projectiles showed that the phases tangle with each other and the morphology of the microstructure of the phases differs in the two penetration modes. Besides, the evolution of shear bands and fractures varies in the two modes. The evolution of the microstructure of HEAs causes the sharp-pointed nose to disappear and the HEA projectile ultimately becomes blunt as the impact velocity increases.