Mathematical Modeling of the Co-Infection Dynamics of HIV and Tuberculosis Incorporating Inconsistency in HIV Treatment

A non-linear HIV-TB co-infection has been formulated and analyzed. The positivity and invariant region has been established. The disease free equilibrium and its stability has been determined. The local stability was determined and found to be stable under given conditions. The basic reproduction number was obtained and according to findings, co-infection diminishes when this number is less than unity, and persists when the number is greater than unity. The global stability of the endemic equilibrium was calculated. The impact of HIV on TB was established as well as the impact of TB on HIV. Numerical solution was also done and the findings indicate that when the rate of HIV treatment increases the latent TB increases while the co-infected population decreases. When the rate of HIV treatment decreases the latent TB population decreases and the co-infected population increases. Encouraging communities to prioritize the consistent treatment of HIV infected individuals must be emphasized in order to reduce the scourge of HIV-TB co-infection.

Socio-Demographic and Occupational Aspects of HIV-HBV Co-Infection in Bangui, Central African Republic (CAR): Hospital-Based Cross-Sectional Study

Objective: HIV-HBV co-infection is a major public health problem that has not been sufficiently explored in the Central African workplace. The aim of this study was to assess the frequency of HIV-HBV co-infection among people who living with HIV (PLHIV) in the infectious and tropical diseases department of the Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de lAmiti Sino-Centrafricaine in Bangui. Methods: A retrospective study was carried out from January 1, 2010 to December 31, 2021 in the Infectious and Tropical Diseases Department at the Amiti Sino-Centrafricaine University Hospital. It included the files of all PLHIV, which included the results of HBV serology. A standardized form was used to collect socio-demographic and professional data by documentary review. Data was analysed using Epi-Info 7 software. Means, proportions were calculated as well as Chi square witch was significant if p-value was below 0.05. Results: The study included 265 patients, 188 were women (70.1%) and 77 men (29.1%), giving a sex ratio of 0.45. Mean age was 35.8 years, higher in men (40 years) than in women (35.8 years) (p 0.0001). The age groups 25 to 34 (37.7%) and 35 to 44 (33.6%) were in the majority (71.3%). The majority of PLHIV were unemployed (57.1%), including housewives (43.0%). HBV prevalence was 14.3%, including 7.2% among the unemployed, who account for half of all co-infections. The search for associations between HIV-HBV co-infection and all socio-demographic characteristics (age, sex, marital status) and socio-professional categories showed no significant difference (p 0.05). Conclusion: PLHIV were predominantly young adults, female, and unemployed;no occupation was significantly associated with co-infection. The vast majority of co-infected people were not covered by the occupational health system (unemployed or informal sector). Urgent action is needed to improve workers access to occupational medicine in CAR.

Insights from respiratory virus co-infections

Respiratory viral co-infections present significant challenges in clinical settings due to their impact on disease severity and patient outcomes.Current diagnostic methods often miss these co-infections,complicating the epidemiology and management of these cases.Research,primarily conducted in vitro and in vivo,suggests that co-infections can lead to more severe illnesses,increased hospitalization rates,and greater healthcare utilization,especially in high-risk groups such as children,the elderly,and immunocompromised individuals.Common coinfection patterns,risk factors,and their impact on disease dynamics highlight the need for advanced diagnostic techniques and tailored therapeutic strategies.Understanding the virological interactions and immune response modulation during co-infections is crucial for developing effective public health interventions and improving patient outcomes.Future research should focus on the molecular mechanisms of co-infection and the development of specific therapies to mitigate the adverse effects of these complex infections.

Dengue and falciparum malaria co-infection in travelers returning from Burkina Faso:Report of two cases in Northeastern Italy

Rationale: Malaria and dengue are the most prevalent vector-borne diseases in tropical countries. Plasmodium parasite and dengue virus(DENV) concurrent infection is possible and often under-recognized in geographical areas where these infections are both endemic.Patients concern and diagnosis: We describe the first two cases of Plasmodium falciparum and DENV-3 co-infection in travelers returning to northeastern Italy from Burkina Faso during 2013-2014.Interventions: Malaria infection in both patients was treated with mefloquine. Due to the persistence of symptoms despite of the antimalaria treatment, dengue was also investigated;the treatment of dengue was symptomatic.Outcomes: The patients were discharged in good general condition.Lessons: The need for surveillance of potential malaria and dengue co-infection in travelers returning to Europe from endemic areas is highlighted, as infection with Plasmodium does not exclude arboviral co-infection.

Streptococcus pneumoniae and Herpes Simplex Virus-1 Central Nervous System Co-Infection

Co-infections of the central nervous system (CNS) caused by bacterial and viral pathogens are considered to be rare. Herpes simplex virus type-1 (HSV-1) reactivation following Streptococcus pneumoniae infection is well described but most cases are related to oral or cutaneous lesions or in respiratory samples. HSV-1 CNS reactivation after Streptococcus pneumoniae meningitis is a very rare event and may have significant morbidity and mortality. In this case report, we describe a 71-year-old female patient that presented with a history of abdominal pain and confusion/disorientation that had tonic-clonic seizures while in the Emergency Department. The diagnostic work-up confirmed CNS co-infection caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae and HSV-1. Of note, beyond age, the patient had no known risk factors for both entities and recovered fully after antibiotic and antiviral therapy. This case underlines that clinicians must be aware of CNS co-infection despite being a rare diagnosis. This should be suspected particularly in patients who present an unusual clinical course of CNS infection.

Prevalence and Clinical Relevance of Schistosoma mansoni Co-Infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis: A Systematic Literature Review

Tuberculosis disease stands for the second leading cause of death worldwide after COVID-19, most active tuberculosis cases result from the reactivation of latent TB infection through impairment of immune response. Several factors are known to sustain that process.Schistosoma mansoni, a parasite of the helminth genus that possesses switching power from an immune profile type Th1 to Th2 that favors reactivation of latent TB bacteria. The aim of the study was to assess the prevalence of the co-infection between the two endemic infections. Systematic literature was contacted at the University Clinical Research Center at the University of Sciences, Techniques, and Technologies of Bamako in Mali. Original articles were included, and full texts were reviewed to assess the prevalence and better understand the immunological changes that occur during the co-infection. In total, 3530 original articles were retrieved through database search, 53 were included in the qualitative analysis, and data from 10 were included in the meta-analysis. Prevalence of the co-infection ranged from 4% to 34% in the literature. Most of the articles reported that immunity against infection with helminth parasite and more specifically Schistosoma mansoni infection enhances latent TB reactivation through Th1/Th2. In sum, the impact of Schistosoma mansoni co-infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis is under-investigated. Understanding the role of this endemic tropical parasite as a contributing factor to TB epidemiology and burden could help integrate its elimination as one of the strategies to achieve the END-TB objectives by the year 2035.

Bacterial and fungal co-infection is a major barrier in COVID-19 patients:A specific management and therapeutic strategy is required

Microbial co-infections are another primary concern in patients with coronavirus disease 2019(COVID-19),yet it is an untouched area among researchers.Preliminary data and systematic reviews only show the type of pathogens responsible for that,but its pathophysiology is still unknown.Studies show that these microbial co-infections are hospital-acquired/nosocomial infections,and patients admitted to intensive care units with invasive mechanical ventilation are highly susceptible to it.Patients with COVID-19 had elevated inflammatory cytokines and a weakened cell-mediated immune response,with lower CD4+T and CD8+T cell counts,indicating vulnerability to various co-infections.Despite this,there are only a few studies that recommend the management of coinfections.

Identification and Pathogen Characteristics Analysis of a Co-infection with CSFV,PRRSV and PCV2

[Objective] The aim of this study was to identify swine diseases caused by CSFV,PRRSV and PCV2 and thus to analyze its pathogeny chracteristics.[Method] The tissues and viscera of the diseased swine were collected from Xiangtan of Hunan(Code of HN/XT)to extract DNA and RNA for PCR amplification and sequencing.Meanwhile,the virulent strains were isolated and identified by cell separation technology.[Result] The sequencing analysis results showed that the amino acid homology between CSFV,PRRSV,PCV2 and sequen...

Outcomes and management of viral hepatitis and human immunodeficiency virus co-infection in liver transplantation

Liver transplantation for human immunodeficiency virus(HIV)positive patients with viral hepatitis co-infection is increasingly offered in many North American and European liver transplant centers.Prior studies have demonstrated acceptable post-transplant outcomes and no increased risk of HIV complications in patients coinfected with hepatitis B virus(HBV).However,liver transplantation in HIV positive patients with hepatitis C virus(HCV)has poorer outcomes overall,requiring careful selection of candidates.This review aims to summarize the published literature on outcomes after transplant in HIV patients with HBV or HCV related end-stage liver disease and recommendations for management.In particular the pre-transplant factors impacting outcomes in HCV/HIV co-infected candidates and importance of multidisciplinary management will be discussed.

Risk Factors, Clinical Features, Baseline Alanine Aminotransferase and CD4+ Count of Children with HIV Co-Infection with Hepatitis B and C at a Tertiary Hospital in Southwest Nigeria

Background: Human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis B and C viruses are endemic in sub- Saharan African countries including Nigeria. Researchers have studied the burden of co-infection of HIV with hepatitis B and hepatitis C but the risk factors and clinical presentation have not been much addressed especially in children. Methodology: This was a prospective cross sectional study that determined the prevalence, risk factors, clinical features, baseline CD4+ count, CD4+ percentage, and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) of newly diagnosed, HAART na?ve HIV co-infection among children who were managed at a Tertiary Hospital in Ilorin, Nigeria. Result: Of the 60 HIV- infected children recruited, 11.7% had HIV co-infection with HBV or HCV. Children with co-infec- tions (mean age 8.43 ± 2.37 years) were significantly older than their HIV mono-infected counterparts (mean age 5.25 ± 3.96 years) (p = 0.011). There was no significant difference between HIV monoinfection and HIV co-infection with respect to gender (p = 0.758), ethnicity (p = 0.707), religion of parents (p = 0.436), family type (p = 0.184), social class (p = 0.535), previous transfusion (p = 0.053), scarification (p = 0.612), female genital mutilation (p = 0.778), and sharing of clippers (p = 0.806). The mean BMI, immunological staging (p = 0.535), baseline ALT (p = 0.940), and mean baseline CD4+ count (p = 0.928) were comparable. However, the body mass index of HIV co-infec- ted children decreased with age up till age 10 years. Conclusion: There were no risk factors, nor clinical features predictive of co-infection identified in this study. Co-infection did not negatively impact baseline, CD4+ count and ALT.

Hepatitis B and C virus co-infections in human immunodeficiency virus positive North Indian patients

AIM： To determine the prevalence of hepatitis B and C virus infections in human immunodeficiency virus （HIV） -positive patients at a tertiary care hospital in New Delhi, India. METHODS： Serum samples from 451 HIV positive patients were analyzed for HBsAg and HCV antibodies during three years （Jan 2003-Dec 2005）. The control group comprised of apparently healthy bone-marrow and renal donors. RESULTS： The study population comprised essentially of heterosexually transmitted HIV infection. The prevalence Fate of HBsAg in this population was 5.3% as compared to 1.4% in apparently healthy donors （P 〈 0.001）. Though prevalence of HCV co-infection （2.43%） was lower than HBV in this group of HIV positive patients, the prevalence was significantly higher （P 〈 0.05） than controls （0.7%）. Triple infection of HIV, HBV and HCV was not detected in any patient. CONCLUSION： Our study shows a significantly high prevalence of hepatitis virus infections in HIV infected patients. Hepatitis viruses in HIV may lead to faster progression to liver cirrhosis and a higher risk of antiretroviral therapy induced hepatotoxicity. Therefore, it would be advisable to detect hepatitis virus coinfections in these patients at the earliest.

Co-infection of Epstein-Barr virus and human papillomavirus in human tumorigenesis

Viral infections contribute to approximately 12%of cancers worldwide,with the vast majority occurring in developing countries and areas.Two DNA viruses,Epstein-Barr virus(EBV) and human papillomavirus(HPV),are associated with38%of all virus-associated cancers.The probability of one patient infected with these two distinct types of viruses is increasing.Here,we summarize the co-infection of EBV and HPV in human malignancies and address the possible mechanisms for the co-infection of EBV and HPV during tumorigenesis.

HIV and HCV:from Co-infection to Epidemiology,Transmission,Pathogenesis,and Treatment

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is the infectious agent causing acquired immu-nodeficiency syndrome (AIDS),a deadliest scourge of human society. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a major causative agent of chronic liver disease and infects an estimated 170 million people worldwide,resulting in a serious public health burden. Due to shared routes of transmission,co-infection with HIV and HCV has become common among individuals who had high risks of blood exposures. Among hemophiliacs the co-infection rate accounts for 85%; while among injection drug users (IDU) the rate can be as high as 90%. HIV can accelerate the progression of HCV-related liver disease,particularly when immunodeficiency has developed. Although the effect of HCV on HIV infection is controversial,most studies showed an increase in mortality due to liver disease. HCV may act as a direct cofactor to fasten the progression of AIDS and decrease the tolerance of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HARRT). Conversely,HAART-related hepatotoxicity may enhance the progression of liver fibrosis. Due to above complications,co-infection with HCV and HIV-1 has imposed a critical challenge in the management of these patients. In this review,we focus on the epidemiology and transmission of HIV and HCV,the impact of the two viruses on each other,and their treatment.

Seroprevalence of HCV and its co-infection with HBV and HIV among liver disease patients of South Tamil Nadu

AIM:To determine the seroprevalence of hepatitis C virus(HCV) and its co-infection with hepatitis B virus(HBV),hepatitis delta agent(HDV) and human immunodeficiency virus(HIV) among liver disease patients of south Tamil Nadu. METHODS:A total of 1012 samples comprising 512 clinically diagnosed cases of liver disease patients and 500 apparently healthy age and sex matched individuals were screened for Hepatitis C virus(anti HCV and HCV RNA) ,Hepatitis B virus(HBsAg),Hepatitis delta agent(anti HDV) and Human immuno virus(antibodies to HIV-1 and HIV-2) using commercially available enzyme linked immunosorbent assay kits.HCV RNA wasdetected by RT-PCR.Liver function tests like ALT,AST,GGT,ALP,bilirubin and albumin were also studied. RESULTS:The seroprevalence of HCV was found to be 5.6%among liver disease patients by ELISA.27/512,49/512 and 12/512 patients were positive for HIV,HBV &HDV respectively.Co-infection of HCV&HBV was found in 8 patients,with 6 for HCV&HIV and 4 for HCV,HBV&HIV co-infections.Sex-wise analysis showed that HIV,HCV&HBV and HCV&HIV co-infection was high among females whereas for HBV it was high in males. The mean ALT and AST in HCV positive cases were 42.1±8.3 and 49±10.1.In people co-infected with HCV&HBV or HCV&HIV or HCV,HBV&HIV the mean ALT of 58.0±03.16,56.78±4.401 and 64.37±4.01 respectively. CONCLUSION:We strongly recommend routine test of the blood for HCV in addition to HBV and HIV.We also recommend individualized counseling to identify those at risk and testing for those who want it.Improved surveillance and periodic epidemiological studies will have to be undertaken to monitor and prevent these blood-borne viruses.

Co-infection of SARS-COV-2 and Influenza A Virus:A Case Series and Fast Review

Coronavirus disease 2019(COVID-19)occurs in the influenza season and has become a global pandemic.The present study aimed to examine severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2(SARS-CoV-2)co-infection with influenza A virus(IAV)in an attempt to provide clues for the antiviral interventions of co-infected patients.We described two patients who were co-infected with SARS-CoV-2 and IAV treated at Wuhan Union Hospital,China.In addition,we performed a review in PubMed,Web of Science and CNKI(from January 1 up to November 1,2020)with combinations of the following key words:“COVID-19,SARS-COV-2,influenza A and co-infection”.A total of 28 co-infected patients were enrolled in the analysis.Of the 28 patients,the median age was 54.5 years(IQR,34.25–67.5)and 14 cases(50.0%)were classified as severe types.The most common symptoms were fever(85.71%),cough(82.14%)and dyspnea(60.71%).Sixteen patients had lymphocytopenia on admission and 23 patients exhibited abnormal radiological changes.The median time from symptom onset to hospital admission was 4 days(IQR,3–6),and the median time of hospital stay was 14 days(IQR,8.5–16.75).In conclusion,patients with SARSCOV-2 and IAV co-infection were similar to those infected with SARS-COV-2 alone in symptoms and radiological images.SARS-COV-2 co-infection with IAV could lead to more severe clinical condition but did not experience longer hospital stay compared with patients infected with SARSCOV-2 alone.

Study on the blood-borne virus co-infection and T lymphocyte subset among intravenous drug users

AIM： To investigate the features of various blood- borne virus infections and co-infection in intravenous drug users （IDUs）, and to examine the correlation of T lymphocyte subsets with virus co-infection. METHODS： Four hundred and six IDUs without any clinical manifestation of hepatitis and 102 healthy persons were enrolled in this study. HBV-DNA and HCV-RNA were detected by fluorescence quantitative PCR. HBsAg, HBeAg, anti-HBc, anti-HCV, HDV-Ag, anti-HGV, anti-HIV, and HCMV-IgM were assayed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay （ELISA） and immunochromatographic tests. The levels of Th1 and Th2 cytokines were measured by ELISA and radioactive immune assay （RIA）. The T lymphocyte subpopulation was detected by using fluorescence immunoassay. The similar indices taken from the healthy persons served as controls. RESULTS： The viral infection rate among IDUs was 36.45% for HBV, 69.7% for HCV, 47.3% for HIV, 2.22% for HDV, 1.97% for HGV, and 3.45% for HCMV. The co- infection rate of blood-borne virus was detected in 255 of 406 （62.81%） IDUs. More than 80% （161/192） of subjects infected with HIV were co-infected with the other viruses, such as HBV, HCV. In contrast, among the controls, the infection rate was 17.65% for HBV and 0% for the other viruses. Our investigation showed that there was a profound decrease in the proportion of CD4/CD8 and the percentage of CD3 and CD4, but not in the percentage of CD8. The levels of PHA-induced cytokines （IFN-γ and IL-4） and serum IL-2 were obviously decreased in IDUs. On the other hand, the level of serum IL-4 was increased. The level of IFN-γ and the percentage of CD4 were continuously decreased when the IDUs were infected with HIV or HIV co-infection. IDUs with HIV and HBV co-infection was 15.1% （29/192）. Of those 29 IDU with HIV and HBV co-infection, 51.72% （15/29） and 37.93% （11/29） were HBV-DNA-positive and HBeAg-positive, respectively. But, among IDUs without HIV infection, only 1.68% （2/119） of cases were HBV- DNA-positive.CONCLUSION： HCV, HBV and HIV infections are common in this population of IDU, leading to a high incidence of impaired Thl cytokine levels and CD4 lymphocyte. IDUs with HIV and HBV/HCV co-infection have lower expression of Th1 cytokine with enhancement of the Th2 response. HIV may be causing HBV replication by decreasing Thl function.

Animal models to study Mycobacterium tuberculosis and HIV co-infection

Mycobacterium tuberculosis(M.tb) and human immunodeficiency virus(HIV) co-infection has become a public health issue worldwide. Up to now, there have been many unresolved issues either in the clinical diagnosis and treatment of M.tb/HIV coinfection or in the basic understanding of the mechanisms for the impairments to the immune system by interactions of these two pathogens. One important reason for these unsolved issues is the lack of appropriate animal models for the study of M.tb/HIV coinfection. This paper reviews the recent development of research on the animal models of M.tb/HIV co-infection, with a focus on the non-human primate models.

Viral co-infections among children with confirmed measles at hospitals in Hanoi,Vietnam,2014

Objective:To characterize viral co-infections among representative hospitalized measles cases during the 2014 Hanoi outbreak.Methods:Throat swabs were collected from 54 pediatric patients with confirmed measles,and molecular diagnostics performed for 10 additional viral respiratory pathogens(Influenza A/H1N1pdm09;A/H3N2 and influenza B;Parainfluenza 1,2,3;Respiratory Synctial Virus,RSV;human Metapneumovirus,hM PV;Adenovirus and Picornavirus).Results:Twenty-one cases(38.9%) showed evidence of infection with other respiratory viruses:15 samples contained measles plus one additional virus,and 6 samples contained measles plus 2 additional viruses.Adenovirus was detected as a predominant cause of co-infections(13 cases;24.1%),followed by RSV(6 cases;11.1%),A/H1N1pdm09(3 cases;5.6%),PIV3(3 cases;3.7%),Rhinovirus(3 cases;3.7%) and hM PV(1 case;1.96%).Conclusions:Viral co-infections identified from pediatric measles cases may have contributed to increased disease severity and high rate of fatal outcomes.Optimal treatment of measles cases may require control of multiple viral respiratory pathogens.

Rapid Detection Co-infections of Classical Swine Fever Virus and Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome Virus by One-step Multiplex RT-PCR

Classical swine fever virus （CSFV） and porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus （PRRSV） have caused immense economic loss in the pig industry and are considered to be the two most important infectious diseases of pigs in the world A multiplex reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction （multiplex RT-PCR） was developed for CSFV and PRRSV co-infections or infections, respectively. A set of two pairs of primer was designed based on the sequence of nonstructural protein NS54B of CSFV and ORF7 gene of PRRSV. The diagnostic accuracy of multiplex RT-PCR assay was evaluated by using 56 field clinical samples by multiplex RT-PCR, single RT-PCR and sequence analysis; and the specificity of multiplex PCR was verified by using constructed plasmids containing the specific viral target fragments of PRRSV and CSFV, respectively. The results indicated that this assay could reliably differentiate PRRSV and CSFV in co-infection samples. The multiplex RT-PCR developed in this study might provide a new avenue to the rapid the detection of CSFV and PRRSV in one reaction.

HIV,HCV,and HBV Co-Infections in a Rural Area of Shanxi Province with a History of Commercial Blood Donation

Background： Unhygienic blood collection in the early 1990s led to blood-borne infections in Central China. This study aimed to estimate human immunodeficiency virus （HIV） co-infection with hepatitis C and B viruses （HCV and HBV） and their risk factors in a rural area of Shanxi Province with a history of commercial blood donation. Methods： A cross-sectional study was conducted in 2004. All adult residents in the target area were invited to participate in the study. Face-to-face interviews were completed and blood specimens were tested for HIV, HCV, and HBV surface antigen （HBsAg）. Results： Prevalence rates of HIV, HCV, and HBsAg were 1.3% （40/3 062）, 12.7% （389/3 062）, and 3.5% （103/2982）, respectively. Of the 40 HIV-positive specimens, 85% were HCV positive and 2.5% were HBsAg positive. The history of commercial blood donation was positively associated with HIV, HCV, and HIV/HCV co-infections, but was negatively associated with HBsAg seropositivity. Migration for employment in the last 5 years was positively related to HIV, HBsAg, and HIV/HCV co-infections. Univariate logistic analysis showed that illegal drug use, number of sex partners, extramarital sex behavior, commercial sex behavior, and condom use rate were not related to anti-HIV, anti-HCV, HBsAg seropositivity or their co-infections. Conclusion： The history of commercial blood donation was the main risk factor for HIV, HCV, and HIV/HCV co-infections in this former commercial blood donation area. HIV and HCV prevention and treatment interventions are important in this area.