Fluid identification and effective fracture prediction based on frequency-dependent AVOAz inversion for fractured reservoirs

Fluid and effective fracture identification in reservoirs is a crucial part of reservoir prediction.The frequency-dependent AVO inversion algorithms have proven to be effective for identifying fluid through its dispersion property.However,the conventional frequency-dependent AVO inversion algorithms based on Smith&Gidlow and Aki&Richards approximations do not consider the acquisition azimuth of seismic data and neglect the effect of seismic anisotropic dispersion in the actual medium.The aligned fractures in the subsurface medium induce anisotropy.The seismic anisotropy should be considered while accounting for the seismic dispersion properties through fluid-saturated fractured reservoirs.Anisotropy in such reservoirs is frequency-related due to wave-induced fluid-flow(WIFF)between interconnected fractures and pores.It can be used to identify fluid and effective fractures(fluid-saturated)by using azimuthal seismic data via anisotropic dispersion properties.In this paper,based on Rüger’s equation,we derived an analytical expression in the frequency domain for the frequencydependent AVOAz inversion in terms of fracture orientation,dispersion gradient of isotropic background rock,anisotropic dispersion gradient,and the dispersion at a normal incident angle.The frequency-dependent AVOAz equation utilizes azimuthal seismic data and considers the effect of both isotropic and anisotropic dispersion.Reassigned Gabor Transform(RGT)is used to achieve highresolution frequency division data.We then propose the frequency-dependent AVOAz inversion method to identify fluid and characterize effective fractures in fractured porous reservoirs.Through application to high-qualified seismic data of dolomite and carbonate reservoirs,the results show that the method is useful for identifying fluid and effective fractures in fluid-saturated fractured rocks.

The applicability and underlying factors of frequency-dependent amplitude-versus-offset(AVO)inversion

Recently,the great potential of seismic dispersion attributes in oil and gas exploration has attracted extensive attention.The frequency-dependent amplitude versus offset(FAVO)technology,with dispersion gradient as a hydrocarbon indicator,has developed rapidly.Based on the classical AVO theory,the technology works on the assumption that elastic parameters are frequency-dependent,and implements FAVO inversion using spectral decomposition methods,so that it can take dispersive effects into account and effectively overcome the limitations of the classical AVO.However,the factors that affect FAVO are complicated.To this end,we construct a unified equation for FAVO inversion by combining several Zoeppritz approximations.We study and compare two strategies respectively with(strategy 1)and without(strategy 2)velocity as inversion input data.Using theoretical models,we investigate the influence of various factors,such as the Zoeppritz approximation used,P-and S-wave velocity dispersion,inversion input data,the strong reflection caused by non-reservoir interfaces,and the noise level of the seismic data.Our results show that FAVO inversion based on different Zoeppritz approximations gives similar results.In addition,the inversion results of strategy 2 are generally equivalent to that of strategy 1,which means that strategy 2 can be used to obtain dispersion attributes even if the velocity is not available.We also found that the existence of non-reservoir strong reflection interface may cause significant false dispersion.Therefore,logging,geological,and other relevant data should be fully used to prevent this undesirable consequence.Both the P-and S-wave related dispersion obtained from FAVO can be used as good indicators of a hydrocarbon reservoir,but the P-wave dispersion is more reliable.In fact,due to the mutual coupling of P-and S-wave dispersion terms,the P-wave dispersion gradient inverted from PP reflection seismic data has a stronger hydrocarbon detection ability than the S-wave dispersion gradient.Moreover,there is little difference in using post-stack data or pre-stack angle gathers as inversion input when only the P-wave dispersion is desired.The real application examples further demonstrate that dispersion attributes can not only indicate the location of a hydrocarbon reservoir,but also,to a certain extent,reveal the physical properties of reservoirs.

Direct hydrocarbon identification in shale oil reservoirs using fluid dispersion attribute based on an extended frequency-dependent seismic inversion scheme

The identification of hydrocarbons using seismic methods is critical in the prediction of shale oil res-ervoirs.However,delineating shales of high oil saturation is challenging owing to the similarity in the elastic properties of oil-and water-bearing shales.The complexity of the organic matter properties associated with kerogen and hydrocarbon further complicates the characterization of shale oil reservoirs using seismic methods.Nevertheless,the inelastic shale properties associated with oil saturation can enable the utilization of velocity dispersion for hydrocarbon identification in shales.In this study,a seismic inversion scheme based on the fluid dispersion attribute was proposed for the estimation of hydrocarbon enrichment.In the proposed approach,the conventional frequency-dependent inversion scheme was extended by incorporating the PP-wave reflection coefficient presented in terms of the effective fluid bulk modulus.A rock physics model for shale oil reservoirs was constructed to describe the relationship between hydrocarbon saturation and shale inelasticity.According to the modeling results,the hydrocarbon sensitivity of the frequency-dependent effective fluid bulk modulus is superior to the traditional compressional wave velocity dispersion of shales.Quantitative analysis of the inversion re-sults based on synthetics also reveals that the proposed approach identifies the oil saturation and related hydrocarbon enrichment better than the above-mentioned conventional approach.Meanwhile,in real data applications,actual drilling results validate the superiority of the proposed fluid dispersion attribute as a useful hydrocarbon indicator in shale oil reservoirs.

Evaluation of Hydrocarbon Potential Using AVO Analysis in the FORMAT Field, Niger Delta Basin, Nigeria

The study involved the evaluation of the hydrocarbon potential of FORMAT Field, coastal swamp depobelt Niger delta, Nigeria to obtain a more efficient reservoir characterization and fluid properties identification. Despite advances in seismic data interpretation using traditional 3D seismic data interpretation, obtaining adequate reservoir characteristics at the finest level had proved very challenging with often disappointing results. A method that integrates the amplitude variation with offfset (AVO) analysis is hereby proposed to better illuminate the reservoir. The Hampson Russell 10.3 was used to integrate and study the available seismic and well data. The reservoir of interest was delineated using the available suite of petrophysical data. This was marked by low gamma ray, high resistivity, and low acoustic impedance between a true subsea vertical depth (TVDss) range of 10,350 - 10,450 ft. The AVO fluid substitution yielded a decrease in the density values of pure gas (2.3 - 1.6 g/cc), pure oil (2.3 - 1.8 g/cc) while the Poisson pure brine increased (2.3 to 2.8 g/cc). Result from FORMAT 26 plots yielded a negative intercept and negative gradient at the top and a positive intercept and positive gradient at the Base which conforms to Class III AVO anomaly. FORMAT 30 plots yielded a negative intercept and positive gradient at the top and a positive intercept and negative gradient at the Base which conforms to class IV AVO anomaly. AVO attribute volume slices decreased in the Poisson ratio (0.96 to - 1.0) indicating that the reservoir contains hydrocarbon. The s-wave reflectivity and the product of the intercept and gradient further clarified that there was a Class 3 gas sand in the reservoir and the possibility of a Class 4 gas sand anomaly in that same reservoir.

基于AVO技术的岩性含气储层预测

针对AH地区,其白碱滩组地震反馈特性较模糊,预测储层的多解性较强,这使得提升含气储层预测精确性成为此地面对的关键问题。近期获取的钻井资讯和对岩石物理的研析发现,纵向和横向波速的比率对于含气储层的反应更为敏锐,比率越高,储层的发育就越显著。采用AH地区的纵横波速比特性来预测白碱滩组储层的发展状态,预测结果与实地钻井的数据非常一致。研究显示,根据白碱滩组发育与非发育储层所呈现的AVO特性,能有效地辨识AH地区的含气储层。利用白碱滩组地震道集纵横波速比特性预测储层的方式,能很好地解决AH地区含气储层预测的多解性问题,提高岩性储层预测的准确性,对AH地区未来的探索和开发具有指导价值。

分频高阶扩展AVO技术在低孔低渗储层中的应用——以准噶尔盆地前哨地区三工河组二段为例

以叠前角道集、测井和试油资料为基础,利用广义S变换时频分析技术确定储层优势频带,在优势频带的约束下,利用高阶Aki-Richards近似方程拟合AVO曲线,求取更准确的截距和梯度;利用扩展弹性阻抗技术的坐标旋转方法,获得流体区分能力最优的AVO属性,结合试油结果进行有利区预测。结果表明:前哨地区三工河组二段储层的优势频段为33~68 Hz,进行AVO分析可以提高有利储层的预测精度。经分频高阶扩展AVO技术处理,有利储层的符合率由69%提高到94%。气层有利区主要集中于QS2—QS4、QS7井区及未钻探的QS1井西区域,其中未钻探面积为6.5 km^(2),是前哨地区天然气增储上产的重点潜力区。该结果为前哨地区天然气勘探部署提供技术支持。

基于改进的介观裂缝岩石物理模型的频散AVO特征分析

地下储层中存在介观尺度的裂缝是导致地震波的速度频散和能量衰减的一个重要原因。从Galvin介观裂缝模型出发,重构其低频极限和高频极限的表达形式,将频散关系施加到裂缝模型上构建依赖频率的裂缝柔度参数,建立了一种改进的介观尺度的裂缝型岩石物理模型。基于该改进模型,利用附加柔度的组合性质,可以容易地构建更复杂的模型并进行依赖频率的地震响应特征分析。在传统的反射系数公式中引入频率参数,分析了具有不同裂缝长度、背景渗透率、流体粘度等频散敏感参数的反射界面上的频散AVO及地震记录响应特征。通过数值模拟得出频散敏感参数主要影响发生频散的频段,即影响岩石的特征频率;当模型的特征频率与地震波频段主频相近时,频散现象最突出,当特征频率大于地震波频段主频一个数量级时,可以忽略频散作用,此时采用传统的Gassmann方程即可较准确地分析地震剖面的特征。基于改进模型得到的认识为地震频散特征的实际应用提供了岩石物理模型的构建方面的指导。

基于改进Bayes信息量准则的锂电池自适应变阶AVO模型

提出了一种融合Bayes信息量准则和樽海鞘优化算法的自适应变阶(AVO)模型。该模型以端电压误差的Bayes信息量作为一阶和二阶RC模型的变阶依据,利用樽海鞘优化算法(SSA)搜索Bayes信息量序列的全局最优解,实现对模型最优变阶序列的求解;通过开展混合动力脉冲特性(HPPC)实验,选用含遗忘因子递推最小二乘法(FFRLS)获取精确的模型参数,完成AVO模型的电阻及电容参数辨识和精度在线验证。结果表明:所建立的锂电池自适应变阶AVO模型平均误差为0.011 9 V,精度及实用性较高。

叠前AVO反演技术在塔河油田三种类型油气藏流体识别中的适用性分析

塔河油田奥陶系油气藏储层非均质性极强,烃源岩长期生排烃、多期充注成藏及混合改造,导致油气性质变化大,给流体识别带来巨大挑战。通过模型正演,分析缝洞型储层厚度、孔隙度、含流体性质对AVO特征的影响,明确气藏、轻质油藏、重质油藏三种不同类型油气藏的AVO特征及敏感参数;在此基础上,开展叠前反演,获得地下不同流体纵波阻抗及纵横波速度比特征,然后基于实际测井数据,建立三种不同类型油气藏岩石物理量版,在岩石物理量版指导下,利用双参数进行流体概率分析,获得缝洞储层流体定量识别结果。对塔河A区(气藏)、B区(轻质油藏)和C区(重质油藏),各50 km 2三维地震资料开展基于叠前AVO反演的流体识别应用研究,将识别结果用于盲井检验,气藏识别符合率为80%,轻质油藏符合率为76%,重质油藏符合率为72%。研究结果为塔河碳酸盐岩储层流体识别提供了参考依据。

Fluid discrimination incorporating viscoelasticity and frequency-dependent amplitude variation with offsets inversion

Frequency-dependent amplitude versus offset(FAVO)inversion is a popular method to estimate the frequency-dependent elastic parameters by using amplitude and frequency information of pre-stack seismic data to guide fluid identification.Current frequency-dependent AVO inversion methods are mainly based on elastic theory without the consideration of the viscoelasticity of oil/gas.A fluid discrimination approach is proposed in this study by incorporating the viscoelasticity and relevant FAVO inversion.Based on viscoelastic and rock physics theories,a frequency-dependent viscoelastic solid-liquid decoupling fluid factor is initially constructed,and its sensitivity in fluid discrimination is compared with other conventional fluid factors.Furthermore,a novel reflectivity equation is derived in terms of the viscoelastic solid-liquid decoupling fluid factor.Due to the introduction of viscoelastic theory,the proposed reflectivity is related to frequency,which is more widely applicable than the traditional elastic reflectivity equation directly derived from the elastic reflectivity equation on frequency.Finally,a pragmatic frequency-dependent inversion method is introduced to verify the feasibility of the equation for frequency-dependent viscoelastic solid-liquid decoupling fluid factor prediction.Synthetic and field data examples demonstrate the feasibility and stability of the proposed approach in fluid discrimination.

Strain-threshold- and frequency-dependent seismic simulation of nonlinear soils

A one-dimensional equivalent linear method （EQL） is widely used in estimating seismic ground response. For this method, the shear modulus and damping ratio of inelastic soil are supposed to be frequency independent. However, historical earthquake records and laboratory test results indicate that nonlinear soil behavior is frequency- dependent. Several frequency-dependent equivalent linear methods （FDEQL） related to the Fourier amplitude of shear strain time history have been developed to take into account the frequency-dependent soil behavior. Furthermore, the shear strain threshold plays an important role in soil behavior. For shear strains below the elastic shear strain threshold, soil behaves essentially as a linear elastic mate- rial. To consider the effect of elastic-shear-strain-threshold- and frequency-dependent soil behavior on wave propaga- tion, the shear-strain-threshold- and frequency-dependent equivalent linear method （TFDEQL） is proposed. A series of analyses is implemented for EQL, FDEQL, and TFDEQL methods. Results show that elastic-shear-strain-threshold- and frequency-dependent soil behavior plays a great influence on the computed site response, especially for the high- frequency band. Also, the effect of elastic-strain-threshold- and frequency-dependent soil behavior on the site response is analyzed from relatively weak to strong input motion, and results show that the effect is more pronounced as input motion goes from weak to strong.

Decoupled estimation of frequency-dependent IQI and channel for OFDM systems with direct-conversion transceivers

The in-phase and quadrature-phase imbalance (IQI) is one of the major radio frequency impairments existing in orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) systems with direct-conversion transceivers. During the transmission of the communication signal, the impact of IQI is coupled with channel impulse responses (CIR), which makes the traditional channel estimation schemes ineffective. A decoupled estimation scheme is proposed to separately estimate the frequency-dependent IQI and wireless channel. Firstly, the generalized channel model is built to separate the parameters of IQI and wireless channel. Then an iterative estimation scheme of frequency-dependent IQI is designed at the initial stage of communication. Finally, based on the estimation result of IQI, the least square algorithm is utilized to estimate the channel-related parameters at each time of channel variation. Compared with the joint estimation schemes of IQI and channel, the proposed decoupled estimation scheme requires much lower training overhead at each time of channel variation. Simulation results demonstrate the good estimation performance of the proposed scheme.

分频AVO技术在安岳气田须二段储层含气性分析中的应用

四川盆地安岳气田须二段致密气储量丰富,地质特征相对复杂,常规AVO分析方法预测储层含气性分布的精度较低,需要研究采用更加精细的地震预测方法。基于单井岩石物理和正演模型特征分析,采用基于小波变换下的分频AVO反演,优选出优势频段的AVO属性进行融合构建含气性因子,进而对安岳气田须二段有利含气富集区带进行分布预测。结果表明,须二段气层主要表现为Ⅳ类AVO响应异常。优势频段35~45 Hz的气、水层AVO响应比全频段的AVO响应的差异特征较明显,差异性更大,更易突出含气响应特征;AVO含气性敏感属性为相对横波速度差异、相对泊松比差和流体因子,经融合得到含气指示因子的负异常区域指示含气有利区;井震对比可知优势频段AVO属性的含气性预测效果较好。该方法以期为非常规油气勘探提供技术支撑。

Frequency-dependent friction in pipelines

A comprehensive study of modeling the frequency-dependent friction in a pipeline during pressure transients following a sudden cut-off of the flow is presented. A new method using genetic algorithms（GAs） for parameter identification of the weighting function coefficients of the frequency-dependent friction model is described. The number of weighting terms required in the friction model is obtained. Comparisons between simulation results and experimental data of transient pressure pulsations close to the valve in horizontal upstream and downstream pipelines are carried out respectively.The validity of the parameter identification method for weighting function coefficients and the calculation method for the number of weighting terms in the friction model is confirmed.

煤弹性参数的影响因素分析及其AVO响应特征

研究煤弹性参数的影响因素可以揭示煤层AVO响应的物理含义,有利于指导复杂地质条件下的煤层气勘探。以沁水盆地寺河矿区3号煤层的60块煤样为研究对象,根据煤的工业成分分析、矿物成分分析和地层条件下测试结果,基于BET多层吸附理论(The Brunauer-Emmett-Teller theory)和自洽模型构建不同流体饱和的煤层气储层岩石物理模型。主要考虑3种流体饱和情况:1种为完全水饱和,另外2种为不同的含水、吸附气和游离气的多相混合流体。在此基础上,分析煤基质组成、孔隙率和流体饱和情况对煤的弹性参数的综合影响,进一步开展含煤地层在不同孔隙率、不同流体饱和情况下的地震AVO响应特征分析。结果表明:研究区内,煤的孔隙率是引起煤纵横波速度、多相流体饱和煤体积模量变化的主要影响因素,且孔隙率增大引起多相流体饱和煤体积模量的变化较明显;相比于孔隙率,不同煤基质组成对完全水饱和煤体积模量、密度的影响更为显著;不同流体饱和情况引起的煤弹性参数变化相较于孔隙率、煤基质组成小。分析含煤地层的AVO响应特征可以发现,孔隙率与AVO属性呈一定线性关系,含水饱和度与AVO属性呈一定非线性关系;与其他AVO属性相比,横波阻抗属性在不同孔隙率、不同流体饱和情况下的地震AVO响应最为显著。

Frequency-dependent reflection of elastic wave from thin bed in porous media

The reflection of elastic wave from thin bed in porous media is important for oil and gas reservoir seismic exploration.The equations for calculating frequency-dependent reflection amplitude versus incident angle(FDAVA)from thin bed in porous media are obtained based on porous media theory.Some conclusions are obtained from numerical analysis,specifically,slow compression wave may be ignored when considering boundary conditions in most situations;the dispersion of reflection from thin bed is much higher than that from thick layer and is periodic in frequency domain,which is affected by the thickness of thin bed,velocity,and incident angle;the reflection amplitude envelope in frequency domain decays exponentially,which is affected by the thickness of thin bed,attenuation,and incident angle;the reflection amplitude increases with thickness of thin bed increasing,and then it decreases when the thickness reaches to a quarter of wavelength.

Quantitative evaluation of gas hydrate reservoir by AVO attributes analysis based on the Brekhovskikh equation

AVO (Amplitude variation with offset) technology is widely used in gas hydrate research. BSR (Bottom simulating reflector), caused by the huge difference in wave impedance between the hydrate reservoir and the underlying free gas reservoir, is the bottom boundary mark of the hydrate reservoir. Analyzing the AVO attributes of BSR can evaluate hydrate reservoirs. However, the Zoeppritz equation which is the theoretical basis of conventional AVO technology has inherent problems: the Zoeppritz equation does not consider the influence of thin layer thickness on reflection coefficients;the approximation of the Zoeppritz equation assumes that the difference of wave impedance between the two sides of the interface is small. These assumptions are not consistent with the occurrence characteristics of natural gas hydrate. The Brekhovskikh equation, which is more suitable for thin-layer reflection coefficient calculation, is used as the theoretical basis for AVO analysis. The reflection coefficients calculated by the Brekhovskikh equation are complex numbers with phase angles. Therefore, attributes of the reflection coefficient and its phase angle changing with offset are used to analyze the hydrate reservoir's porosity, saturation, and thickness. Finally, the random forest algorithm is used to predict the reservoir porosity, hydrate saturation, and thickness of the hydrate reservoir. In the synthetic data, the inversion results based on the four attributes of the Brekhovskikh equation are better than the conventional inversion results based on the two attributes of Zoeppritz, and the thickness can be accurately predicted. The proposed method also achieves good results in the application of Blake Ridge data. According to the method proposed in this paper, the hydrate reservoir in the area has a high porosity (more than 50%), and a medium saturation (between 10% and 20%). The thickness is mainly between 200m and 300m. It is consistent with the previous results obtained by velocity analysis.

AVO梯度谱蓝化在中深层薄砂岩刻画中的应用

传统谱蓝化主要用于叠后地震拓频处理,适用于测井波阻抗能较好辨别砂、泥岩的浅层,对于中深层阻抗混叠区局限性较大。AVO梯度反映相对反射系数随炮检距的变化,与泊松比变化率呈现正相关,而泊松比能较好辨别中深层砂、泥岩。本文首先通过岩性组合、物性及流体等参数变化,正演论证了AVO梯度在中深层辨识砂岩顶界面的可靠性与稳定性;进一步地,针对中深层薄砂岩刻画精度低问题,提出一种基于AVO梯度信息的谱蓝化地震拓频技术,通过对AVO梯度谱蓝化拓频,提高薄储层刻画精度。模型试算及实际应用表明:基于AVO梯度的谱蓝化可以直接运用AVO梯度辨识储层界面信息,简化基于CRP道集或角度部分叠加的多参数岩性预测方法;同时,该方法较好解决了XH凹陷深埋地层薄砂岩刻画难题,对中深层地震高分辨率处理有一定借鉴意义。

基于Xu-White模型的叠前AVO优化反演在深海浊积储层应用

Glengorm区上侏罗统砂层组Freshney油气资源富集,储层精细刻画是其难点,主要包含两方面:(1)目的层段砂、泥岩阻抗叠置,而受制于测井资料品质,叠前Vp/Vs弹性信息辨识岩性能力较弱;(2)地震资料频带窄、信噪比S/N较低,导致常规反演手段难以有效刻画储层,气层预测难度大。对此,本文首先应用Xu-White岩石物理建模方法,正演分析弹性参数并优化Vp/Vs辨识岩性能力;其次,在叠前AVO反演流程上提出统计性子波解决常规反演砂体预测精度较低问题;最后,利用FFP岩相流体识别技术完成Freshney气层精细刻画。靶区应用表明:该项技术较好地解决了Freshney储层流体刻画难等问题,对英国北海盆地深海浊积砂岩精细刻画具有一定的借鉴意义。

准东地区云质岩储层叠前反演及脆性预测

脆性是一种评价致密储层可压裂性的重要指标,对油气勘探与开发有着重要的意义。准东地区勘探程度低、探井少,二叠系中下部云质岩致密储层的精细描述和脆性的准确预测均有着很大的难度。为此,根据岩石物理实验结果,利用叠前地震角度域数据体,开展储层叠前反演及脆性预测。通过AVO反演,获取P(截距)+G(梯度)和P×G属性;通过Y(杨氏模量,E)P(泊松比,σ)D(密度,ρ)和L(拉梅常数,λ)M(μ)R(ρ)反演,获取弹性参数的变化率(反射系数);通过测井约束反演,获取弹性参数的实际值,并用多种表征公式计算脆性,分析其物理含义及应用效果。研究结果表明:①研究区横波速度与纵波速度有较好的拟合关系,杨氏模量、泊松比和密度对泥岩、非泥岩区分度明显;②云质岩具有高速特征,研究区储层呈双“甜点”结构;③用三个小角度数据体直接反演弹性参数反射系数,YPD反演方法相较LMR的储层识别效果更好、分辨率更高,密度反射系数数据体可见比较明显的扇体及河道冲积特征;④脆性表征结果与弹性参数特征有一定的区别,脆性表征的云质岩有利区呈条带状分布,而弹性参数预测的云质岩有利区基本呈连续、成片分布;⑤ρE/σ为研究区最佳的脆性表征公式,可为类似油田云质岩储层脆性预测提供借鉴。