Effects of wind-dispelling drugs and deficiency-nourishing drugs of Houshiheisan compound prescription on astrocyte activation and inflammatory factor expression in the corpus striatum of cerebral ischemia rats

This study explored protective effects of Houshiheisan and its compound prescription of wind-dispelling drugs and deficiency-nourishing drugs on cerebral ischemia in terms of astrocyte activation and inflammatory factor expression.Results suggested that Houshiheisan lessened neuronal degeneration in the corpus striatum on the ischemic side of rats following cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury,contributed to astrocyte activation and glial fibrillary acidic protein expression in the corpus striatum and decreased the levels of interleukin-2,interleukin-6, interleukin-1βand tumor necrosis factor-α.Factor analysis results demonstrated that deficiency-nourishing drugs were more beneficial in protecting neurons and upregulating glial fibrillary acidic protein expression than wind-dispelling drugs.However,wind-dispelling drugs were more effective in increasing the number of glial fibrillary acidic protein-positive cells and reducing inflammatory factor expression than deficiency-nourishing drugs.These indicate that different ingredients of Houshiheisan suppress cerebral ischemic injury by promoting astrocyte activation and diminishing inflammatory factor expression.

The afferent connections and its immunohistochemical characteristics of the marginal division in the rat corpus striatum

The afferent connections and its immunohistochemical characteristics of the marginal division of the rat corpus striatum were studied with tract tracing and immunohistochemical methods. The afferent projection neurons of the marginal division were in the lateral part of the substantia nigra and its dorsolateral area, including the peripeduncular nucleus and posterior intralaminar nucleus. Using double labeling technique, we observed that some HRP and substance P(SP), cholecystokinin (CCk), neurotensin (NT),leucine-enkephalin (L-Enk),or tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) double labeled neurons were observed in the above regions.It is suggested that these affterent projection neurons of the marginal division may be associated with the function of sensation,memory and movement.

Morphological characteristics of the synaptic structures of substance P-immunoreactive terminals in the marginal division of the rat striatum

In the present study,the morphological characteristics of the synaptic structure(MCSS)of the substance P immunoreactive(SPIR)teminals in the marginal division(MrD)of the ratstriatum were studied by using electron microscopy and immunocytochemistry.Four major typesof SPIR symnapses were identified in teh MrD.axodendritic,axo-spinous,axo-axonic,and com-pound.Axo-dendritic and axo-spinous synapses were more common,and a few axo-axonic andcompound synapses wer observed as well.In the postsynaptic target zones of axo-dendritic,andaxo-spinous synapses,there were small or large dendrites or spires.Some synapses with morethan two synaptic components are referred to as compound synapses.Both symmetric andasymmetric SPIR synapses were seen in the MrD.The vesicles in the SPIR presynaptic boutonswere mostly pleomorphic although a few of them were round,The MCSS distinguishes theultrastructure of the MrD from that of the other part of striatum,which suggests that the func-tion of the MrD may be different from that of the rest of the striatum.

EFFECTS OF TRANSIENT FOREBRAIN ISCHEMIA AND RADIX SALVIAE MILTIORRHIZAE (RSM) ON EXTRACELLULAR LEVELS OF MONOAMINE NEUROTRANSMITTERS AND METABOLITES IN THE GERBIL STRIATUM-An in vivo Microdialysis Study

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of 30 min forebrain ischemia, followed by 120 min reperfusion on extracellular fluid (ECF) levels of dopamine (DA), norepinephrine (NE), serotonin (5-HT) and their metabolites, homovanillic acid (HVA) and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) in the striatum of gerbils, so as to obtain further information on the mechanism of Radix Salviae Miltiorrhizae (RSM)-induced neuroprotection. Microdialysis was used to sample the extracellular space. Dialysate was measured by high performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical detector (HPLC-ED). ECF DA, NE levels increased from basal levels by 282, 227 and 221 folds, by 9.14, 8.51 and 8.25 folds, respectively for the three ischemic duration (0-10; 11-20; 21-30 min). ECF DA, NE, 5-HT levels in the RSM-treated group were significantly decreased as compared with those in the control group during ischemia (P

Sauna Technique, Drying Kinetic Modeling and Effectiveness on Solar Drying Compared with Direct Drying in Drying Process of <i>Kappaphycus striatum</i>in Selakan Island Malaysia

A sauna drying technique—the solar drier was designed and imposed, constructed and tested for drying of seaweed. The seaweed moisture content was decreased around 50% in 2-day sauna. Kinetic curves of drying of seaweed were known to be used in this system. The non-linear regression procedure was used to fit three different drying models. The models were compared with experimental data of red seaweed being dried on the daily average of air temperature about 40℃. The fit quality of the models was evaluated using the coefficient of determination (R2), Mean Bias Error (MBE) and Root Mean Square Error (RMSE). The highest values of R2 (0.99027), the lowest MBE (0.00044) and RMSE (0.03039) indicated that the Page model was the best mathematical model to describe the drying behavior of sauna dried seaweed. The percentage of the saved time using this technique was calculated at 57.9% on the average solar radiation of about 500 W/m2 and air flow rate of 0.056 kg/s.

Functional proteomics of adenosine triphosphatase system in the rat striatum during aging

The maximum rates of adenosine triphosphatase （ATPase） systems related to energy consumption were systematically evaluated in synaptic plasma membranes isolated from the striata of male Wistar rats aged 2, 6, 12, 18, and 24 months, because of their key role in presynaptic nerve ending homeostasis. The following enzyme activities were evaluated： sodium-potassium-magnesium adenosine triphosphatase （Na^＋, K^＋, Mg^2＋-ATPase）; ouabain-insensitive magnesium adenosine triphosphatase （Mg^2＋-ATPase）; sodium-potassium adenosine triphosphatase （Na^＋, K^＋-ATPase）; direct magnesium adenosine triphosphatase （Mg^2＋-ATPase）; calcium-magnesium adenosine triphosphatase （Ca^2＋, Mg^2＋-ATPase）; and acetylcholinesterase. The results showed that Na~, K＋-ATPase decreased at 18 and 24 months, Ca^2＋, Mg^2＋-ATPase and acetylcholinesterase decreased from 6 months, while Mg^2＋-ATPase was unmodified. Therefore, ATPases vary independently during aging, suggesting that the ATPase enzyme systems are of neuropathological and pharmacological importance. This could be considered as an experimental model to study regeneration processes, because of the age-dependent modifications of specific synaptic plasma membranes. ATPases cause selective changes in some cerebral functions, especially bioenergetic systems. This could be of physiopathological significance, particularly in many central nervous system diseases, where, during regenerative processes, energy availability is essential.

Adenosine A2A receptor-expressing neurons in the striatum regulate sleep behaviors

OBJECTIVE The high prevalence of sleep disturbance has been found in patients with striatum-related neurodegenerative disorders.In the striatum,there are abundant adenosine A2A receptors(A2ARs)whichhavebeen reported to mediatesleepbehavior for adenosine.We hypothesized that the A2AR-expressing neurons in the striatum are involved in sleep-wake regulation.METHODS We employed a chemogenetic technique,designer receptor exclusively activated by designer drug(DREADD),to specifically and non-invasively manipulate the neuron activity based on the principle of Cre/Lox P recombination,EEG/electromyogram recording for sleep-wake behaviors,the neural tracing approach toselectively visualize the perikarya of A2AR-expressing neurons and their axons by adeno-associated virus(AAV)encoding humanized Renilla green fluorescent(hr GFP)as a tracerin A2AR-Cre mice.In addition,we used immunoelectron microscopy,patch-clamp technique,and optogenetics in A2AR-Cre mice to selectively characterize the synapse and functional connectivity between the A2AR-expressing neurons and the neuron of their downstream targets in vitro.RESULTS The activation of A2AR-expressing neurons in rostral,centromedial and centrolateral striatum increased non-rapid eye movement(non-REM,NREM)sleep,concomitant with a reduction in wakefulness,whereas the activation of A2AR-expressing neurons in caudal striatum didn′t alter sleep-wake profiles at all.Topographical projections in the sagittal section showed that the axons of A2ARexpressing neurons from rostral striatum distributed in the rostral external globuspallidus(GPe)with a discoidal region paralleled to the striato-pallidal border,while the axons of the A2AR-expressing neurons from the central striatum not only distributed in the rostral GPe,but also in the caudal GPe with a similar distributing pattern as did in rostral neurons.However,the axons of A2ARexpressing neurons from caudal striatum just scattered in the caudal GPe.Based on our anatomical findings and patch-clamp technique combining with optogenetics,we found that A2AR neurons in the rostral striatum preferentially formed inhibitory synapses with parvalbumin(PV)-positive neurons in the rostral GPe,while A2AR neurons in the caudal striatum preferentially formed inhibitory synapses with PV-negative neurons in the caudal GPe.CONCLUSION The present results indicated that the A2AR-expressing neurons in rostral and central striatum are involved in sleep-wake regulation,probably via innervating PV-positive neurons in the GPe.

Calcium-mediated paired pulse depression in juvenile rat dorsal striatum

As the major division of the basal ganglia, neostriatum forms mutual connections with multiple brain areas and is critically involved in motor control and learning/memory. Long-term synaptic plasticity has been widely studied in different species recently. However, there are rare reports about the short-term synaptic plasticity in neostratium. In the present study, using field excitatory postsynaptic potentials recording, we reported one form of short-term synaptic plasticity that is paired pulse depression in juvenile rat dorsal striatum slices induced by stimuli of the white matter. The field excitatory postsynaptic potentials could be abolished by α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylizoxazole-4-propionic acid receptor antagonist, 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione, but not by gamma-aminobutyric acid type A receptor antagonist bicuculline or dopamine D1 receptor antagonist SKF-81297. The paired pulse depression in the corticostratial pathway was different from paired pulse facilitation in the hippocampal CA1 synapse. In addition, the paired pulse depression was not affected by bath application of gamma-aminobutyric acid type A receptor antagonist or dopamine D1 receptor antagonist. However, low calcium and high magnesium could attenuate the paired pulse depression. These findings suggest a more complicated plasticity form in the dorsal striatum of juvenile rats that is different from that in the hippocampus, which is related with extracellular calcium.

Intracerebroventricularly-administered 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium ion and brain-derived neurotrophic factor affect catecholaminergic nerve terminals and neurogenesis in the hippocampus,striatum and substantia nigra

Parkinson＇s disease is a progressive neurological disease characterized by the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra.A highly similar pattern of neurodegeneration can be induced by 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine（MPTP） or 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium ion（MPP＋）,which cause the death of dopaminergic neurons.Administration of MPTP or MPP＋ results in Parkinson＇s disease-like symptoms in rodents.However,it remains unclear whether intracerebroventricular MPP＋ administration affects neurogenesis in the substantia nigra and subgranular zone or whether brain-derived neurotrophic factor alters the effects of MPP＋.In this study,MPP＋（100 nmol） was intracerebroventricularly injected into mice to model Parkinson＇s disease.At 7 days after administration,the number of bromodeoxyuridine（Brd U）-positive cells in the subgranular zone of the hippocampal dentate gyrus increased,indicating enhanced neurogenesis.In contrast,a reduction in Brd U-positive cells was detected in the substantia nigra.Administration of brain-derived neurotrophic factor（100 ng） 1 day after MPP＋ administration attenuated the effect of MPP＋ in the subgranular zone and the substantia nigra.These findings reveal the complex interaction between neurotrophic factors and neurotoxins in the Parkinsonian model that result in distinct effects on the catecholaminergic system and on neurogenesis in different brain regions.

Expression of substance P receptor gene in the brain and marginal division of rat striatum-oligonucleotide probes in situ hybridization study

Objective: To study the expression of substance P receptor gene in the brain and marginal division in rats. Methods:In situ hybridiztion was performed on sections of the rat brain using digoxingenin--labeled substance P receptor (SPR ) cDNA as probes. Results: The positive reactive neurons distributed unevenly in the central nervous system. There were numerous strong SPR positive neurons in the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, amygdaloid nucleus and marginal division of the rat striatum. These results suggest that the marginal division cells of the striatum contain SPR mRNA and express SP receptor. Conclusion: It is supposed that the expression of SPR in marginal division of the striatum may play an important role in the reception and regulation of the neurotransmitter substance P, and the modulation of cholinergic activity involved in learning and memory of the marginal division.

CHANGES OF MONOAMINES, PURINES AND AMINO ACIDS IN RAT STRIATUM AS MEASURED BY INTERCEREBRAL MICRODIALYSIS DURING ISCHEMIA/REPERFUSION

The aim of this study was to determine the time course of changes in extracellular fluid (ECF) concentrations of purines, amino acids, monoamines, and their metabolites in the striatum of rats during ischemia and reperfusion, using intracerebral microdialysis as the sampling technique. In rats subjected to 20 min forebrain ischemia by four-vessel occlusion, the concentrations of adenosine (Ade), inosine (Ino) and hypoxanthine (Hyp) were found to rise markedly. These changes were accompanied by dramatically elevated levels of aspartate (Asp), glutamate (Glu), taurine (Tau), γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), dopamine (DA) and norepinephrine (NE), all of which gradually returned to baseline following reperfusion. Concomitantly, the levels of metabolite 3, 4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) . homovanillic acid (HVA), 5-hydroxyindole-3-acetic acid (5-HIAA) and xanthine (Xan) decreased during ischemia and gradually recovered 60～ 90 min after reperfusion. It was concluded that during global brain ischemia, the ECF is flooded with both potentially harmful (e. g. Asp, Glu, DA) and protective (e. g. Tau, GABA, Ade) agents.

Study on Tissue Culture and Adventitious Bud Induction of Eucheuma striatum

This study aimed to investigate the aseptic treatment and disinfection of E. striatum explants and the effects of three liquid culture medium （ PES, PESI, f/2） and plant hormones on adventitious bud induction from explants. The results showed that the vast majority of explants disinfected by combined treatment exhib- ited good growth and normal color with an average mortality rate of only 9%. E. striatum explants exhibited the best growth in PES liquid medium and the survival rate reached 66.67% at 40 d after culture. Under different concentrations （0.5, 2, 5 mg/L） of 6-BA, the induction rate ofE. striatum explants was significantly higher than that in control group, but no remarkable differences were found in the induction of adventitious buds from E. striatum explants. In PES liquid medium containing 6-BA and 2,4-D, the adventitious bud induction rate was 90% and the average number of induced adventitious buds was 6.63.

The adjustment of γ-aminobutyric acid_A tonic subunits in Huntington＇s disease：from transcription to translation to synaptic levels into the neostriatum

γ-Aminobutyric acid（GABA）,plays a key role in all stages of life,also is considered the main inhibitory neurotransmitter.GABA activates two kind of membrane receptors known as GABAA and GABAB,the first one is responsible to render tonic inhibition by pentameric receptors containing α4-6,β3,δ,or ρ1-3 subunits,they are located at perisynaptic and/or in extrasynaptic regions.The biophysical properties of GABAA tonic inhibition have been related with cellular protection against excitotoxic injury and cell death in presence of excessive excitation.On this basis,GABAA tonic inhibition has been proposed as a potential target for therapeutic intervention of Huntington＇s disease.Huntington＇s disease is a neurodegenerative disorder caused by a genetic mutation of the huntingtin protein.For experimental studies of Huntington＇s disease mouse models have been developed,such as R6/1,R6/2,Hdh Q92,Hdh Q150,as well as YAC128.In all of them,some key experimental reports are focused on neostriatum.The neostriatum is considered as the most important connection between cerebral cortex and basal ganglia structures,its cytology display two pathways called direct and indirect constituted by medium sized spiny neurons expressing dopamine D1 and D2 receptors respectively,they display strong expression of many types of GABAA receptors,including tonic subunits.The studies about of GABAA tonic subunits and Huntington＇s disease into the neostriatum are rising in recent years,suggesting interesting changes in their expression and localization which can be used as a strategy to delay the cellular damage caused by the imbalance between excitation and inhibition,a hallmark of Huntington＇s disease.

Aortic Graft Complicated by a Corynebacterium Striatum Infection Due to Previous Type IV Thoraco Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm Repair

We report successful management of aortic graft infection without graft explanation or extra-anatomic bypass. A 61 year-old male who had undergone surgical repair of a type IV thoraco-abdominal aortic aneurysm presented with left flank pain and raised inflammatory markers following graft implantation. CT scanning revealed a left psoas fluid collection. Graft infection was diagnosed. A radio-guided drainage and conservative management, with irrigation drain placement was undertaken with preservation of the aortic graft. There was no evidence of recurrent infection after follow-up at 34 months. Aortic endograft infection may be managed by surgical or radio-guided drainage, antibiotic irrigation of the graft and systemic antibiotic therapy without graft removal.

First Report of Fusarium striatum Causing Root Rot Disease of Panax notoginseng in Yunnan,China

Panax notoginseng is a traditional Chinese medicinal plant.Root rot of P.notoginseng is one of the most serious diseases affecting P.notoginseng growth and causes wilted leaves,fewer lateral roots and rotten roots.Root rot is a soil-borne disease,and mainly occurs from June to August in Yunnan Province when the temperatures are high and the air is humid.In this study,the endophytic fungal genus Fusarium isolate E-2018.1.22-#3.2 was obtained from a P.notoginseng embryo.Fusarium isolate E-2018.1.22-#3.2 was identified as Fusarium striatum based on morphological characteristics and molecular analysis.The fungus was found to have conidiophores and macroconidia,and its ITS,LSU and TEF-1αgenes shared 100%,99.2%and 99%identities with the homologous genes of Fusarium striatum,respectively.Isolate F.striatum E-2018.1.22-#3.2 can cause root rot symptoms,including black,soft roots,fewer lateral roots and leaf wilt,in 93%of the experimental P.notoginseng plants,and could be re-isolated,fulfilling Koch’s postulates.When the P.notoginseng plants were treated with the fungicide pyraclostrobin,isolate F.striatum E-2018.1.22-#3.2 was unable to cause root rot.We have therefore demonstrated that F.striatum E-2018.1.22-#3.2 is able to cause root rot disease in P.notoginseng.This is the first report of root rot disease caused by F.striatum on P.notoginseng in China.

M_(4) muscarinic receptors regulates dopamine/DARPP-32 signaling and glutamate transmis⁃sion to balance dopaminergic D1 function in mouse dorsal striatum

OBJECTIVE Abnormal striatal dopaminergic and glutamatergic neurotransmis⁃sion is central to the pathophysiology of schizo⁃phrenia.In this study,we investigated the roles of M4 receptor interplay with D1 signaling in stria⁃tal neurotransmission that affect glutamatergic transmission to control the etiology of neuropsy⁃chiatric disorders.METHODS To study dorsal striatum(DS)region-specific neuronal and behav⁃ioral responses modulated by M4 receptors,we used clustered regularly interspaced short palin⁃dromic repeats-associated protein 9 technology to generate mice lacking M4 in the dorsal stria⁃tum(DS-M4-KD).The M4 positive allosteric modu⁃lator,VU0467154,were used to study the phar⁃macologically profiles with M4 receptor stimula⁃tion in WT mice.Oxotremorine M(Oxo-M),a no subtype-selective muscarinic agonist,was used to show that mAchRs activation,in order to dissect the particular function of M4,in DS-M4-KD mice.Open filed test and forced swim test were used to assess the change of psychiatric-like behav⁃iors.Western blotting and immunohistochemistry were used to detect protein levels of phosphory⁃lation site of dopamine-and cAMP-regulated phosphoprotein of 32 ku(DARPP-32).Whole-cell patch-clamp recording was used to assess M4-mediated cholinergic inhibition of glutamater⁃gic synaptic input transmission.RESULTS West⁃ern blotting and immunohistochemistry assay showed VU0467154(5 mg·kg-1,ip)promoted phosphorylation of DARPP-32 at Thr75,and atten⁃uated D1-dependent phosphorylation of DARPP-32 at Thr34 within the mouse DS.Consistently,the Oxo-M(4μg,icv)also increased DARPP-32 phosphorylation at site Thr75 to reversed phos⁃phorylation at site Thr34 in WT mice,but not in DS-M4-KD mice.In parallel with altered DARPP-32 responses,VU0467154 or Oxo-M evoked a psychological stress response and reversed D1-induced hyperlocomotion in mice in open field test and force swim tests.However,Oxo-M sup⁃pression of D1-depengdeng behavioral respons⁃es was impaired in DS-M4-KD mice.Whole-cell patch recording showed that VU0467154 or Oxo-M mediated endogenous cholinergic inhibition of miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents through M4 receptors,which in turn suppressed D1-depen⁃dent glutamatergic synaptic transmission in the DS.CONCLUSION This study provides evidence for the role of M4 receptors in regulation of dopa⁃mine/DARPP-32 signaling and glutamate respons⁃es in the DS,and therefore modulation of psychi⁃atric behaviors associated with D1 signaling.This results indicate the mechanisms of treatments targeting M4 in psychiatric disorders.

Growth Rate of Kappaphycus striatum var cottonii at Different Positions of the Cultivation Lines to the Direction of Water Current

The study was conducted to determine the effects of different positions in cultivation lines towards the direction of water current on growth rate of Kappaphycus striatum var. cottonii for a duration of 45 d at 4°30′9.36″ N and 119°22′6.8″ E of Bungin Pondohan, Sitangkai, Tawi-Tawi. The experiment has three treatments;the parallel (T1), perpendicular (T2) and diagonal (T3) positions towards the direction of water current with five replicates in each treatment following the randomized complete block design (RCBD). Results showed that higher mean weight of 473 g and growth increment of 8.3 g/d were obtained from T3, although not significantly different from T1 and T2 with 431 g and 7.4 g/d, and 408 g and 6.8 g/d, respectively (p>0.05). However, results showed statistically similar growth rates of K. striatum var cottonii among all treatments. Thus, the positions of cultivation lines with respect to the direction of the current have no significant effect on the growth of the said seaweed species. Hence, the treatments used are viable in growing K. striatum var. cottonii in the selected study site.

Chinese SPECT semi-quantitative analysis of striatum

To study and analyze reconstruction parameters in 99mTc-Trodat-l SPECT（Tomography EmissionComputed Single-Photon） brain semi-quantitative analysis,and the outlined methods of ROIs（regions of interests）. The 99mTc-trodat-l SPECT brain imaging was processed,and the ROIs were outlined four times from December 2009 to July 2011.The results for each method were analyzed and compared to improve our experience.There was no statistically significance between the outlined number of pixel in both sides of the cerebellum and the ratio of the radioactive counts.From LEHR and FAN beam collimator,the average ratio became better with increasing the outlining method,especially the fourth time.It could be estimated that striatum mean volume（±SD） was（39.51±9.54 ml,in the range of 19.97-51.98 mL） and mean weight（±SD） was（44.09±10.64 g in the range of 22.28-58.01 g）.The details of image processing and data analysis should not be ignored to outline appropriate methods,and withstand the repetitive inspection.The total striatum was outlined and its volume and weight was analyzed.

The Secondary Motor Cortex-striatum Circuit Contributes to Suppressing Inappropriate Responses in Perceptual Decision Behavior

The secondary motor cortex(M2)encodes choice-related information and plays an important role in cue-guided actions.M2 neurons innervate the dorsal striatum(DS),which also contributes to decision-making behavior,yet how M2 modulates signals in the DS to influence perceptual decision-making is unclear.Using mice performing a visual Go/No-Go task,we showed that inactivating M2 projections to the DS impaired performance by increasing the false alarm(FA)rate to the reward-irrelevant No-Go stimulus.The choice signal of M2 neurons correlated with behavioral performance,and the inactivation of M2 neurons projecting to the DS reduced the choice signal in the DS.By measuring and manipulating the responses of direct or indirect pathway striatal neurons defined by M2 inputs,we found that the indirect pathway neurons exhibited a shorter response latency to the No-Go stimulus,and inactivating their early responses increased the FA rate.These results demonstrate that the M2-to-DS pathway is crucial for suppressing inappropriate responses in perceptual decision behavior.

The dual role of striatal interneurons:circuit modulation and trophic support for the basal ganglia

Striatal interneurons play a key role in modulating striatal-dependent behaviors,including motor activity and reward and emotional processing.Interneurons not only provide modulation to the basal ganglia circuitry under homeostasis but are also involved in changes to plasticity and adaptation during disease conditions such as Parkinson's or Huntington's disease.This review aims to summarize recent findings regarding the role of striatal cholinergic and GABAergic interneurons in providing circuit modulation to the basal ganglia in both homeostatic and disease conditions.In addition to direct circuit modulation,striatal interneurons have also been shown to provide trophic support to maintain neuron populations in adulthood.We discuss this interesting and novel role of striatal interneurons,with a focus on the maintenance of adult dopaminergic neurons from interneuronderived sonic-hedgehog.