Genetic source,migration and accumulation of helium under deep thermal fluid activities:A case study of Ledong diapir area in Yinggehai Basin,South China Sea

Based on the geochemical parameters and analytical data,the heat conservation equation,mass balance law,Rayleigh fractionation model and other methods were used to quantify the in-situ yield and external flux of crust-derived helium,and the initial He concentration and thermal driving mechanism of mantle-derived helium,in the Ledong Diapir area,the Yinggehai Basin,in order to understand the genetic source,migration and accumulation mechanisms of helium under deep thermal fluid activities.The average content of mantle-derived He is only 0.0014%,the 3 He/4 He value is(0.002–2.190)×10^(−6),and the R/Ra value ranges from 0.01 to 1.52,indicating the contribution of mantle-derived He is 0.09%–19.84%,while the proportion of crust-derived helium can reach over 80%.Quantitative analysis indicates that the crust-derived helium is dominated by external input,followed by in-situ production,in the Ledong diapir area.The crust-derived helium exhibits an in-situ 4 He yield rate of(7.66–7.95)×10^(−13)cm^(3)/(a·g),an in-situ 4 He yield of(4.10–4.25)×10^(−4)cm^(3)/g,and an external 4 He influx of(5.84–9.06)×10^(−2)cm^(3)/g.These results may be related to atmospheric recharge into formation fluid and deep rock-water interactions.The ratio of initial mole volume of 3 He to enthalpy(W)is(0.004–0.018)×10−11 cm^(3)/J,and the heat contribution from the deep mantle(XM)accounts for 7.63%–36.18%,indicating that deep hot fluid activities drive the migration of mantle-derived 3 He.The primary helium migration depends on advection,while the secondary migration is controlled by hydrothermal degassing and gas-liquid separation.From deep to shallow layers,the CO_(2)/3 He value rises from 1.34×10^(9)to 486×10^(9),indicating large amount of CO_(2)has escaped.Under the influence of deep thermal fluid,helium migration and accumulation mechanisms include:deep heat driven diffusion,advection release,vertical hydrothermal degassing,shallow lateral migration,accumulation in traps far from faults,partial pressure balance and sealing capability.

Fluid Charging and Paleo-pressure Evolution in the Ledong Slope Zone of the Yinggehai Basin,South China Sea

Large numbers of gas reservoirs have been discovered in overpressure basins.Fluid charging has a close relationship with paleo-pressure evolution,affecting the migration of gas reservoirs.To study fluid charging and the related pressure system,we analyzed burial histories and fluid inclusion(PVTx)simulations and conducted basin modeling of the Ledong Slope Zone in the Yinggehai Basin as an example.On the basis of fluid-inclusion assemblages(FIAs),homogenization temperature(Th),final melting temperature(Tm,ice)and Raman spectroscopy in fluid inclusions,there are three stages of fluid charging:during the first and second stage,methane-dominated fluid was charged at 2.2–1.7 Ma and 1.7–0.9 Ma,respectively.In the third stage,CO_(2)-rich hydrothermal fluid was charged since 0.9 Ma.It could be concluded from the well-logging data that the disequilibrium compaction in the Yinggehai Fm.,along with the fluid expansion and clay diagenesis in the Huangliu and Meishan formations,resulted in the overpressure in the Ledong slope zone.The evolution of paleo-pressure was affected by the sedimentation rate of the Yinggehai Fm.,as well as the hydrocarbon generation rate.Additionally,the Ledong Slope Zone is less affected by diapir activity than the nearby diapir area.Based on fluid inclusions,paleo-pressure,basin modeling and geological background,the gas migration history of the Ledong Slope Zone can be divided into four stages:in the first stage,excess pressure was formed around 5 Ma;from 2.2 to 1.7 Ma,there was a reduction in the charging of hydrocarbon fluid and steadily increasing excess pressure;during the 1.7–0.9 Ma period a large amount of hydrocarbon was generated,excess pressure increasing significantly and hydraulic fractures forming in mudstones,With gas reservoirs developing in structural highs;since 0.9 Ma,CO_(2)-rich hydrothermal fluid accumulated in reservoirs adjacent to faults and the pressure coefficient remained stable.The research results are helpful in the study of fluid migration and accumulation mechanisms in overpressure basins.

Effects of Overpressured Fluid Flow on Petroleum Accumulation in the Yinggehai Basin

The Yinggehai Basin is a strongly overpressured Cenozoic basin developed in the northern continental shelf of the South China Sea. The flow of overpressured fluids in this basin has given rise to strong effects on petroleum accumulation. (1) The overpressured fluid flow has enhanced the maturation of shallow-buried source rocks, which has caused the source rocks that would have remained immature under the conduction background to be mature for hydrocarbon generation. As a result, the overpressured fluid flow has increased the volume and interval of mature source rocks. (2) The overpressured fluid flow has strong extraction effects on the immature or low-mature source rocks in the shallow parts. This has increased, to some extent, the expulsion efficiency of the source rocks. More importantly, the extraction effects have strongly limited the effectiveness of biomarker parameters from oil and condensate in reflecting the source and maturity of the oil and gas. (3) The flow has caused the sandstones in the shallow parts to get into the late diagenesis stage, and significantly reduced the porosity and permeability of the sandstones. This study confirms that even in sedimentary basins in which no topography-driven groundwater flow systems have ever developed, the cross-formation migration of overpressured fluids and the resultant energy conduction and material exchange can significantly affect the thermal regime, source rock maturation and sandstone diagenesis. As a result, the effects of overpressured fluid flow must be taken into account in analyzing the mechanism of petroleum accumulation.

Sequence Stratigraphic Modeling of Sedimentary Basin: Conceptual Model and Application to Erlian and Yinggehai Basins, China

A quantitative two-dimensional model of sequence stratigraphy is formulated to simulate the development of sequence architecture in sedimentary basins. The model takes into account sea level change, tectonic subsidence, compaction of sediments, flexural isostatic compensation, erosion and sedimentation. It may be used to test sequence stratigraphic model, to analyze the development of sequence architecture and sequence boundaries, and to predict facies distribution in basins. The computer model, combined with backstripping technique, is cali- brated to model the sedimentary filling of the Early Cretaceous Erlian basin and the Tertiary Yinggehai basin. The study shows that the development of high order sequences in the basins was closely related to the multiple stretching and inversion. The development of the progradational sequence set of the Yinghuang Formation in Yinggehai basin formed in synrift period was mainly controlled by a large amount of sediment input high fluctuation of sea level and gradual subsidence of the basin.

Observation of Catastrophic Degassing from Mantle-Crust in Yinggehai Basin, South China Sea

To lower the CO 2 risk for hydrocarbon exploration in the west continental shelf of Yinggehai basin, South China Sea, we do attempt not only to know the CO 2 origins, but also to make an understanding of the degassing processes from the mantle and crust. Based on the stable carbon isotope ratios of CO 2 alone, the organic and inorganic CO 2 can be successively distinguished, but the formation conditions and mixing processes for inorganic CO 2 are still not clear. The relationships between lg[R(= 3He/ 4He)/R a(=1.386×10 -6)] and CO 2 content (%), CO 2/ 3He and δ 13C CO 2 have been employed, respectively, to obtain that the CO 2 gases in the reservoirs can be classified into three categories: (1) organic CO 2 with very low contents but contaminated by mantle-derived helium; (2) inorganic CO 2 gases with lower to higher contents being mixtures of crustal CO 2 with mantle-derived CO 2, the mantle- contributed percentage being in the range of 0 %-27 %, and (3) mainly crust-derived inorganic CO 2 gases being characterized by high contents (more than 50 %) and indicating the crustal addition by metamorphism of rich-in carbon rocks in basement. Nevertheless, some CO 2/ 3He ratios of organic CO 2 fall into the range 10 8-10 10, which made us inquire whether the CO 2/ 3He=(1-10)×10 9 can be the unique signature of magmatic CO 2 or not. All the observation of plutonic activities, fluid inclusion measurements in gas reservoirs, pre-stack depth/time seismic sections and the satellite infrared remote photography taken from Yinggehai basin, South China Sea, during Chichi earthquake in Taiwan on September 21, 1999, supports that the degassing processes are in a discontinuous mode, which may be triggered by igneous intrusion or extrusion, or earthquakes. In the central diapir zone of the basin, at least 3 to 4 orders of discharge of across-formational thermal fluid flows through fractures can be determined in different scales. The mantle degassing process may have a strong effect on overpressured system forming and outgassing in crust. However, it is very difficult to estimate the transferring rates for a special fractured zone at a specific time interval.

Development of Diapirs and Accumulation of Natural Gases in Yinggehai Basin

Overpressure developed throughout most of the Yinggehai basin. The burial depth to top overpressure varied from about 1 600 m to 4 500 m, with the shallowest top overpressure occurring in the depocenter. The main cause of the overpressure was disequilibrium compaction resulting from rapid sedimentation of fine grained sediments. The overpressure was strengthened by the retention of fluids including gases due to lack of faults before diapir development. The diapirism in the Yinggehai basin was a combined result of the strong overpressure and the tensile stress field caused by the right lateral slip of the boundary fault. The diapirism, a product of the movement of overpressured fluids and plastic shales, shaped the vertical conduits from source to traps that would be absent without overpressured fluid release. Natural gas accumulation in traps in the diapir structure zones was also intermittent, which can be inferred from the inter reservoir compositional heterogeneity, transient thermal effect of fluid flow and migration fractionation.

Heterogeneity and influencing factors of marine gravity flow tight sandstone under abnormally high pressure:A case study from the Miocene Huangliu Formation reservoirs in LD10 area,Yinggehai Basin,South China Sea

The characteristics of reservoir heterogeneity of the marine gravity flow tight sandstone from the Miocene Huangliu Formation under abnormally high pressure setting at LD10 area in Yinggehai Basin are studied,and the influencing factors on reservoir heterogeneity are discussed,based on modular formation dynamics test,thin sections,XRD analysis of clay minerals,scanning electron microscopy,measurement of pore throat image,porosity and permeability,and high pressure Hg injection,as well as the stimulation of burial thermal history.The aim is to elucidate characteristics of the heterogeneity and the evolution process of heterogeneity of the reservoir,and predict the favorable reservoirs distribution.(1)The heterogeneity of the reservoir is mainly controlled by the cement heterogeneity,pore throat heterogeneity,quality of the reservoir heterogeneity,and the diagenesis under an abnormally high pressure setting.(2)The differences in pore-throat structure caused by diagenetic evolution affected the intergranular material heterogeneity and the pore throat heterogeneity,and finally controlled the heterogeneity of reservoir quality.(3)Compared with the reservoir under normal pressure,abnormally high pressure restrains strength of the compaction and cementation and enhances the dissolution of the reservoir to some extent,and abnormally high pressure thus weakening the heterogeneity of the reservoir to a certain degree.The favorable reservoirs are mainly distributed in the gravity flow sand body under the strong overpressure zone in the middle and lower part of Huangliu Formation.

Episodic Fluid Injections in Overpressured Basins:A Case Study from Yinggehai Basin

The characteristics, origin and injection history of the Dongfang gas field, the largest gas field found in the Yinggehai basin, are studied by integrated geological, geothermal and geochemical data. The gas field shows considerable variation in hydrocarbon gas, nitrogen and carbon dioxide content, aud has been filled by at least four stage fluids. A strong thermal anomaIy caused by hydrothermal fluid flows occurs in the gas field, as evidenced rrom drill-stem test and fluid iuclusion homogenization temperatures, rock-eval tmax,vitrinite reflectance as well as clay-mineral transformation profiles. Such a thermal anomaly suggests focused, rapid flow of deeply-sourced hydrothermal rluids. The inter-reservoir heterogeneities, the strong migotion rractionation related to abrupt changes in pressure and temperature and tbe short-lived, transient nature of the thermal effect of fluid flow are evidences of episodic rluid injections from the overpressured systems into the reservoirs.

Distribution characteristics of delta reservoirs reshaped by bottom currents:A case study from the second member of the Yinggehai Formation in the DF1-1 gas field,Yinggehai Basin,South China Sea

The Dongfang1-1 gas field(DF1-1)in the Yinggehai Basin is currently the largest offshore self-developed gas field in China and is rich in oil and gas resources.The second member of the Pliocene Yinggehai Formation(YGHF)is the main gas-producing formation and is composed of various sedimentary types;however,a clear understanding of the sedimentary types and development patterns is lacking.Here,typical lithofacies,logging facies and seismic facies types and characteristics of the YGHF are identified based on high-precision 3D seismic data combined with drilling,logging,analysis and testing data.Based on 3D seismic interpretation and attribute analysis,the origin of high-amplitude reflections is clarified,and the main types and evolution characteristics of sedimentary facies are identified.Taking gas formation upper II(IIU)as an example,the plane distribution of the delta front and bottom current channel is determined;finally,a comprehensive sedimentary model of the YGHF second member is established.This second member is a shallowly buried“bright spot”gas reservoir with weak compaction.The velocity of sandstone is slightly lower than that of mudstone,and the reflection has medium amplitude when there is no gas.The velocity of sandstone decreases considerably after gas accumulation,resulting in an increase in the wave impedance difference and high-amplitude(bright spot)reflection between sandstone and mudstone;the range of high amplitudes is consistent with that of gas-bearing traps.The distribution of gas reservoirs is obviously controlled by dome-shaped diapir structural traps,and diapir faults are channels through which natural gas from underlying Miocene source rocks can enter traps.The study area is a delta front deposit developed on a shallow sea shelf.The lithologies of the reservoir are mainly composed of very fine sand and coarse silt,and a variety of sedimentary structural types reflect a shallow sea delta environment;upward thickening funnel type,strong toothed bell type and toothed funnel type logging facies are developed.In total,4 stages of delta front sand bodies(corresponding to progradational reflection seismic facies)derived from the Red River and Blue River in Vietnam have developed in the second member of the YGHF;these sand bodies are dated to 1.5 Ma and correspond to four gas formations.During sedimentation,many bottom current channels(corresponding to channel fill seismic facies)formed,which interacted with the superposed progradational reflections.When the provenance supply was strong in the northwest,the area was dominated by a large set of delta front deposits.In the period of relative sea level rise,surface bottom currents parallel to the coastline were dominant,and undercutting erosion was obvious,forming multistage superimposed erosion troughs.Three large bottom current channels that developed in the late sedimentary period of gas formation IIU are the most typical.

Structural Effects of Overpressure Fluid Activities in Yinggehai Basin

The characteristics and distribution of faults in Yinggehai basin discussed in this paper reveal the structural effects of the overpressure fluid expulsion. The rapid subsidence and mud rich intervals of the marine rocks dominate the formation of the overpressure systems and the enormous volumes of the overpressure fluids in the basin. Triggered by some faults, the overpressure fluids were expulsed rapidly from the overpressure compartments to form a series of diapirs in the basin, resulting in the dense fractures or faults and folds in the limbs of diapirs. These fractures and faults provided the migration pathway for the vertical flow of hydrocarbons, so that the gas fields arising from this process might migrate upwards to the sandstone reservoir. Therefore, the hydrocarbon accumulations are usually located in the upper parts of diapiric structures.

Overpressure Identification and Pressure Prediction in Yinggehai Basin

The accurate prediction of overpressure is one of the key issues that restrict the effective development of oil and gas resources in the Yinggehai Basin. In this paper, the formation mechanism of overpressure in Yinggehai Basin is studied. Based on this mechanism, the quantitative prediction model and empirical parameters of overpressure are optimized in Yinggehai Basin and applied in engineering. The results show that the formation mechanism of overpressure in the Yinggehai Basin is complicated, and the causes of overpressure in different blocks of basin are different. The eastern block mainly develops loading-type overpressure, while the Ledong block is dominated by unloading high pressure. Different blocks should employ different abnormal high-pressure prediction models. The East block mainly adopts the Eaton method, and the Ledong block mainly utilizes the Bowers method. The empirical parameters of different models can be determined according to the actual drilling conditions. The practical application demonstrates that the abnormal high-pressure prediction error is within 2%, and it is able to satisfy the requirements of on-site engineering.

Sedimentary Characteristics and Model of Gravity Flow Depositional System for the First Member of Upper Miocene Huangliu Formation in Dongfang Area, Yinggehai Basin, Northwestern South China Sea

The gravity flow deposit were mainly developed in the lowstand systems tract（LST） of the first member of Upper Miocene Huangliu Formation（Ehl1） in Dongfang area, Yinggehai Basin, has become a valuable target for gas exploration and production. The gravity flow sedimentary characteristics of lithofacies associations, sedimentary texture, seismic facies and logging facies were described in detail on the basis of integrated analysis of cores, logging and seismic data. The sedimentary microfacies types composed of neritic sandbar, continental shelf mud, main channel, bifurcated or cross-cutting distributary channel, overspill, and natural levee are revealed under the constraint of high resolution sequence stratigraphic framework in the Ehl1. The gravity flow deposit system in the LST is divided into three evolution stages corresponding to periods of three parasequence sets. The gravity flow deposit was induced in the early LST, expanded rapidly in the middle LST and decreased slightly in the late LST. But its developing scale decreased sharply in the transgression systems tract（TST） and finally vanished in the highstand systems tract（HST）. This spatial evolution rule is constrained by the integrated function of sediments supply of the Vietnam Blue River in the LST, the development of local gradient change in sea floor（micro-topography, i.e., flexure slope break）, and the fall in relative sea level. On the basics of the deep study of the coupling relationship among the three main control factors, the sedimentary model is established as an optimal component of ＂source-channel-sink＂ for shallow marine turbidite submarine fan.

Geochemistry of Pore Water and Associated Diagenetic Reactions in the Diapiric Area of Yinggehai Basin, Northwestern South China Sea

This study examined the geochemical features of pore water in the diapiric area of the Yinggehai Basin, northwestern South China Sea, and illuminated the origin and evolution of basin fluids. Pore water with low salinity occurs in marine sediments in the diapiric area even without meteoric water infiltration. The presence of low-salinity water within deep, overpressured compartments is assumed to be due to smectite-illite transformation. Howerver, in shallow portions（less than 2 000 m） of diapiric areas with normal pressure, pore water has a much wider variation and much lower salinity than that in the overpressured intervals. Its total dissolved solid（TDS） content is ~5 336 to 35 939 mg/L. Moreover, smectite and chlorite content sharply decreases as kaolinite and illite content increase in shallower intervals. The geochemical variation of pore water in diapiric structures indicates the expulsion of low-salinity, overpressured fluids along vertical faults. Strong injection of hot fluids from deep overpressured sediments results in rapid clay mineral transformation in shallow reservoirs. Consequently, fluid mixing due to fluid expulsion from deeper overpressured deposits leads to variation in salinity and ionic composition as well as some diagenetic reactions. This includes transformation of clay minerals caused by the higher temperatur of deeper hot fluids, e.g., the transfromation of smectite to illite and chlorite to kaolinite. Therefore, variations in salinity and ionic compositions in various pressured systems provide a clue to flow pathways and associated diagenetic reactions.

Yinggehai Basin Gas Exploration:Comparison with Jiyang Depression

Yinggehai（莺歌海） basin and Jiyang（济阳） depression experienced similar tectonic evo-lution,which is mainly controlled by the strike-slip faults.The strike pull-apart basins are characteris-tic by multiple deposition cycles,migration of deposition and subsidence center,and diversity deposi-tional systems.Furthermore,both basins show abnormal formation pressure.Compared with the oil and gas-rich Jiyang depression,Yinggehai basin developed the similar geological background that is favorable to the formation of funnel-shaped meshwork-carpet subtle reservoirs.Overpressure diapir body is the core of hydrocarbon accumulation in central diaper zone of Yinggehai basin.Driven by high pressure,oil and gas migrate along the funnel-shaped passage system into the overlying low-potential zone formed.The overlying sand bodies of overpressure diapirs are the favorable gas exploration zone.

Characteristics and accumulation mechanisms of the Dongfang 13-1 high temperature and overpressured gas field in the Yinggehai Basin, the South China Sea

The Dongfang 13-1 is located in the diapiric structure belt of the Yinggehai Basin. The formation pressure of its main gas reservoir in the Miocene Huangliu Formation is up to 54.6 MPa(pressure coefficient=1.91) and the temperature is as high as 143°C(geothermal gradient 4.36°C/100 m), indicating that it is a typical high-temperature and overpressured gas reservoir. The natural gas is interpreted to be coal-type gas derived from the Miocene mature source rocks containing type II2-III kerogens as evidenced by high dryness index of up to 0.98 and heavy carbon isotopes, i.e., the δ13C1 ranging from -30.76‰ to -37.52‰ and δ13C2 ranging from -25.02‰ to -25.62‰. The high temperature and overpressured Miocene petroleum system is related mainly to diapir in the Yinggehai Basin and contains more pore water in the overpressured reservoirs due to undercompaction process. The experimental and calculated results show that the solubility of natural gas in formation water is as high as 10.5 m3/m3 under the temperature and pressure conditions of the Sanya Formation, indicating that at least part of the gas may migrate in the form of water-soluble phase. Meanwhile, the abundant gas source in the Basin makes it possible for the rapid saturation of natural gas in formation water and exsolution of soluble gas. Therefore, the main elements controlling formation of the Dongfang 13-1 gas pool include that(1) the diapir activities and accompanying changes in temperature and pressure accelerate the water-soluble gas exsolution and release a lot of free gas;(2) submarine fan fine sandstone in the Huangliu Formation provides good gas-water segregation and accumulation space; and(3) the overlying overpressured mud rocks act as effective caps. The accumulation mechanism reveals that the high temperatural and high pressure structure belt near the diapir structures has a good potential for large and medium-sized gas field exploration.

Mechanism of diapirism and episodic fluid injections in the Yinggehai Basin

The diapirism in the Yinggehai Basin is a combined result of strong overpressure caused by rapid sedimentation of fine-grain sediments and the tensile stress field resulting from right-lateral slip of the boundary-fault. The diapirism showed multiple-stage, episodic nature, and caused intermittent counter-direction onlaps and changes in the thickness of strata. The shallow gas reservoirs in the diapir structural zone displayed obvious inter-reservoir compositional heterogeneities, and their filling history could be divided into 4 stages, with gases injected during different stages having different hydrocarbon gas, CO2 and N2 contents and different stable isotope compositions. The multiple-episode, intermittent activities of the diapirs, multiple-stage, non-continuous injections of fluids, and the transient thermal effect of fluid flow as well as the strong migration fractionation reflected episodic fluid injection and natural gas accumulation.

Characteristics of Overpressure Systems and Their Significance in Hydrocarbon Accumulation in the Yinggehai and Qiongdongnan Basins,China

Overpressure systems are widely developed in the central depression and paleo-uplift in the Yinggehai and Qiongdongnan basins. They can be divided into three types according to the origin of abnormally high formation pressure in the reservoirs, i.e. the autochthonous, vertically-transmitted and laterally-transmitted types. The autochthonous overpressure system results from rapid disequilibrium sediment loading and compaction. In the allochthonous overpressure system, the increase of fluid pressure in sandstone originates from the invasion of overpressured fluid flowing vertically or laterally through the conduit units. The autochthonous overpressure system occurs in the deep-lying strata of Neogene age in the central depression of the Yinggehai and Qiongdongnan basins. The vertically transmitted overpressure system is developed in the shallow strata of Late Miocene and Pliocene ages in the diapiric zone of the central Yinggehai basin, and the laterally transmitted overpressure system occurs in the Oligocene strata of paleo-uplifts, such as the structure of Ya-211 in the Qiongdongnan basin. The results indicate that the autochthonous overpressure system is generally a closed one, which is unfavorable for the migration and accumulation of hydrocarbons. In the allochthonous overpressure system, hydrocarbon accumulation depends on the relationship between the formation of overpressure systems and the spatial location and duration of hydrocarbon migration. The interval overlying the overpressure system is usually a favorable hydrocarbon accumulation zone if the duration of fluid expulsion coincides with that of hydrocarbon accumulation.

Tectono-thermal modeling of the Yinggehai Basin,South China Sea

Based on the observed data, the average value of surface heatflow in the Yinggehai Basin is calculated and it turns out to be 84.1 mW/m2. The thermal evolution of the basin since the Cenozoic era has been attempted by tectono-thermal modeling. Three-phase extension made the basin become hotter and hotter, reaching its climax in paleo-temperature history since 5.2 Ma. And nowadays, the basin is in the heat flow decreasing period. During the Cenozoic era, the basement heat flow remained at 50-70 mW/m2 all the time. This is related to the degree of each extension phase, stretching rate mode and also the limited basin scale. Modeling results also show that, the surface heat flow is controlled mainly by the basement heat flow, and less than 20% comes from radiogenic heat production in the sediments of the basin.

Conduit System and formation mechanism of heat fluids in diapiric belt of Yinggehai basin,China

The conduit system of heat fluids in diapiric belt of Yinggehai basin is dominantly vertical faults and fractures . Detailed research on the formation mechanism and their occurrence features shows that the faults and fractures can be classified into three types: intrastratal dispersive hydrofracture, puncturing fault and upwarping-extensional fault. The development of the fault and fracture system not only resulted in the changes of the temperature and pressure fields in the basin, but also affected the hydrocarbon migration in the overpressured system. These faults and fractures constituted the main pathways for vertical hydrocarbon migration, and opening and closing intermittently led to episodic expulsion of overpressured fluid compartment. Thus there formed the pool-forming model of multi-source mixing and ploy-stage migration and accumulation for hydrocarbons in the Yinggehai basin.

Natural gas generation model and its response in accumulated fluids in the Yinggehai basin

The natural gases found in the Yinggehai basin have nitrogen gas content ranging from 3.5% to 35%, and carbon dioxide content ranging from 0.1% to 93%. The nitrogen and CO2 con-tents show a wide variation even in the same gas field. The natural gas generation and evolution model has been established based on the relationship among the contents of nitrogen, carbon dioxide and hydrocarbon gases in the discovered gas fields, and the results of simulation experi-ments. The thickness of the Tertiary and Quaternary in the Yinggehai basin is over 17 km, and gas generation stages from diagenesis (microbial methane) to metamorphism have been developed. Nitrogen in this basin is organic in origin, and has been generated mainly in the catagenetic stage, roughly synchronous with hydrocarbon gases. Carbon dioxide is mainly inorganic in origin, and has been generated from high-temperature decomposition of carbonates in the metamorphic stage. The Dongfang gas field shows strong inter-reservoir compositional heterogeneities, and different gas reservoirs have recorded the products of gas generation at different stages. It has been con-firmed that the complexity in natural gas composition in the Yinggehai basin is the combined re-sults of multi-stage natural gas generation and multi-stage gas injection and accumulation.