Afterpulse measurement of JUNO 20‑inch PMTs

In this study,we present the large photomultiplier tube(PMT)afterpulse measurement results obtained from the Jiangmen underground neutrino observatory(JUNO)experiment.A total of 11 dynode-PMTs(R12860)from the Hamamatsu company(Hamamatsu Photonics K.K.(HPK))and 150 micro-channel plate PMTs(MCP-PMTs,GDB-6201)from the NNVT company(North Night Vision Technology Co.,Ltd.(NNVT))were tested.Subsequently,an afterpulse model was built according to the afterpulse time distribution and the probability of occurrence for these two types of PMTs.The average ratio of the total afterpulse charge with a delay between 0.5μs and 20μs to the primary pulse charge is∼5.7%(13.2%)for the tested MCPPMTs(dynode-PMTs).The JUNO experiment will deploy 20,01220-inch PMTs;this study will benefit detector simulation,event reconstruction,and data analysis regarding the JUNO experiment.

Finite-key analysis of practical time-bin high-dimensional quantum key distribution with afterpulse effect

High-dimensional quantum resources provide the ability to encode several bits of information on a single photon,which can particularly increase the secret key rate rate of quantum key distribution(QKD) systems. Recently, a practical four-dimensional QKD scheme based on time-bin quantum photonic state, only with two single-photon avalanche detectors as measurement setup, has been proven to have a superior performance than the qubit-based one. In this paper, we extend the results to our proposed eight-dimensional scheme. Then, we consider two main practical factors to improve its secret key bound. Concretely, we take the afterpulse effect into account and apply a finite-key analysis with the intensity fluctuations.Our secret bounds give consideration to both the intensity fluctuations and the afterpulse effect for the high-dimensional QKD systems. Numerical simulations show the bound of eight-dimensional QKD scheme is more robust to the intensity fluctuations but more sensitive to the afterpulse effect than the four-dimensional one.

Study of the influence of virtual guard ring width on the performance of SPAD detectors in 180 nm standard CMOS technology

The influence of the virtual guard ring width(GRW)on the performance of the p-well/deep n-well single-photon avalanche diode(SPAD)in a 180 nm standard CMOS process was investigated.TCAD simulation demonstrates that the electric field strength and current density in the guard ring are obviously enhanced when GRW is decreased to 1μm.It is experimentally found that,compared with an SPAD with GRW=2μm,the dark count rate(DCR)and afterpulsing probability(AP)of the SPAD with GRW=1μm is significantly increased by 2.7 times and twofold,respectively,meanwhile,its photon detection probability(PDP)is saturated and hard to be promoted at over 2 V excess bias voltage.Although the fill factor(FF)can be enlarged by reducing GRW,the dark noise of devices is negatively affected due to the enhanced trap-assisted tunneling(TAT)effect in the 1μm guard ring region.By comparison,the SPAD with GRW=2μm can achieve a better trade-off between the FF and noise performance.Our study provides a design guideline for guard rings to realize a low-noise SPAD for large-array applications.

Analysis of the one-decoy-state SARG04 quantum cryptography protocol in the presence of afterpulse effects

The SARG04 quantum key distribution protocol can offer greater robustness against photon number splitting attacks than the BB84 protocol that is implemented with weak pulses.In this paper,we propose a tight key analysis for the SARG04 protocol,by considering the one-decoy method and investigating its performance under the influence of a detector afterpulse.Our results demonstrate that an increase in block size leads to a slight increase in both the secure key rate and the maximum transmission distance.Importantly,the detector afterpulse plays a crucial role in practical applications and has a more pronounced effect on the SARG04 protocol compared to the BB84 protocol.

Afterpulsing characteristics of InGaAs/InP single photon avalanche diodes

In Ga As/In P single photon avalanche diodes（SPADs） are more and more available in many research fields. They are affected by afterpulsing which leads to a poor single photon detection probability. We present an In Ga As/In P avalanche photodiode with an active quenching circuit on an application specific integrated circuit（ASIC）. It can quench the avalanche rapidly and then reduce the afterpulse rate. Also this quenching circuit can operate in both free-running and gated modes.Furthermore, a new technique is introduced to characterize the influence of the higher order of afterpulses, which uses a program running on a field programmable gate array（FPGA） integrated circuit.