Reheat effect on the improvement in efficiency of the turbine driven by pulse detonation

Due to the strong unsteadiness of pulse detonation,large flow losses are generated when the detonation wave interacts with the turbine blades,resulting in low turbine efficiency.Considering that the flow losses are dissipated into the gas as heat energy,some of them can be recycled during the expansion process in subsequent stages by the reheat effect,which should be helpful to improve the detonationdriven turbine efficiency.Taking this into account,this paper developed a numerical model of the detonation chamber coupled with a two-stage axial turbine,and a stoichiometric hydrogen-air mixture was used.The improvement in turbine efficiency attributable to the reheat effect was calculated by comparing the average efficiency of the stages with the efficiency of the two-stage turbine.The research indicated that the first stage was critical in suppressing the flow unsteadiness caused by pulse detonation,which stabilized the intake condition of the second stage and consequently allowed much of the flow losses from the first stage to be recycled,so that the efficiency of the two-stage turbine was improved.At a 95%confidence level,the efficiency improvement was stable at 4.5%—5.3%,demonstrating that the reheat effect is significant in improving the efficiency of the detonation-driven turbine.

Investigation of system parameters towards safer impact based shock-to-detonation transition in a novel laser driven flyer plate prototype

Laser driven flyer plate technology offers improved safety and reliability for detonation of explosives in industrial applications ranging from mining and stone quarrying to the aerospace and defense industries.This study is based on developing a safer laser driven flyer plate prototype comprised of a laser initiator and a flyer plate subsystem that can be used with secondary explosives.System parameters were optimized to initiate the shock-to-detonation transition(SDT)of a secondary explosive based on the impact created by the flyer plate on the explosive surface.Rupture of the flyer was investigated at the mechanically weakened region located on the interface of these subsystems,where the product gases from the deflagration of the explosive provide the required energy.A bilayer energetic material was used,where the first layer consisted of a pyrotechnic component,zirconium potassium perchlorate(ZPP),for sustaining the ignition by the laser beam and the second layer consisted of an insensitive explosive,cyclotetramethylene-tetranitramine(HMX),for deflagration.A plexiglass interface was used to enfold the energetic material.The focal length of the laser beam from the diode was optimized to provide a homogeneous beam profile with maximum power at the surface of the ZPP.Closed bomb experiments were conducted in an internal volume of 10 cm^(3) for evaluation of performance.Dependency of the laser driven flyer plate system output on confinement,explosive density,and laser beam power were analyzed.Measurements using a high-speed camera resulted in a flyer velocity of 670±20 m/s that renders the prototype suitable as a laser detonator in applications,where controlled employment of explosives is critical.

Study on concentration distribution and detonation characteristics for non-axisymmetric fuel dispersal

The study of non-axisymmetric fuel dispersal and detonation can provide reference for the prevention of industrial cloud explosion accidents and the design of fuel air explosive(FAE).The concentration and detonation fields of 85 kg cylindrical and fan-shaped fuel are investigated by experiments and numerical simulations.A dynamic model of the whole process for fuel dispersal and detonation is built.The concentration distribution of fuel is used as the initial condition to calculate the detonation stage,thus solving the initial value problem of detonation field.The phase and component changes of fuel cloud at different locations are compared.The fuel cloud is divided into directions of 0°,90°,135°and 180°.The results show that the maximum cloud radius is 20.94 m in 135°and the minimum is 12.04 m in 0°.The diameter of the detonation fireball is 53.6 m,and the peak temperature is 3455 K.The highest peak overpressure is 3.44 MPa in 0°and the lowest is 2.97 MPa in 135°.The proportion of liquid phase in 0°is22.90%,and the fuel loss is 11.8% and 9% higher than that in 135°and cylindrical charge,respectively.The stable propagation distance of blast wave in 135°is 42.50% longer than 0°and 28.37% longer than cylindrical charge.

Atmospheric transmission algorithm for pulsed X-rays from high-altitude nuclear detonations based on scattering correction

In high-altitude nuclear detonations,the proportion of pulsed X-ray energy can exceed 70%,making it a specific monitoring signal for such events.These pulsed X-rays can be captured using a satellite-borne X-ray detector following atmospheric transmission.To quantitatively analyze the effects of different satellite detection altitudes,burst heights,and transmission angles on the physical processes of X-ray transport and energy fluence,we developed an atmospheric transmission algorithm for pulsed X-rays from high-altitude nuclear detonations based on scattering correction.The proposed method is an improvement over the traditional analytical method that only computes direct-transmission X-rays.The traditional analytical method exhibits a maximum relative error of 67.79% compared with the Monte Carlo method.Our improved method reduces this error to within 10% under the same conditions,even reaching 1% in certain scenarios.Moreover,its computation time is 48,000 times faster than that of the Monte Carlo method.These results have important theoretical significance and engineering application value for designing satellite-borne nuclear detonation pulsed X-ray detectors,inverting nuclear detonation source terms,and assessing ionospheric effects.

Assessing the energy release characteristics during the middle detonation reaction stage of aluminized explosives

Afterburning behind the detonation front of an aluminized explosive releases energy on the millisecond timescale,which prolong the release of detonation energy and the energy release at different stages also shows significant differences.However,at present,there are few effective methods for evaluating the energy release characteristics of the middle reaction stage of such explosives,which can have a duration of tens to hundreds of microseconds.The present work demonstrates an approach to assessing the midstage of an aluminized explosive detonation based on a water push test employing a high degree of confinement.In this method,the explosive is contained in a steel cylinder having one end closed that is installed at the bottom of a transparent water tank.Upon detonation,the gaseous products expand in one direction while forcing water ahead of them.The resulting underwater shock wave and the interface between the gas phase products and the water are tracked using an ultra-high-speed framing and streak camera.The shock wave velocity in water and the expansion work performed by the gaseous detonation products were calculated to assess the energy release characteristics of aluminized explosives such as CL-20 and RDX in the middle stage of the detonation reaction.During the middle stage of the detonation process of these aluminized explosives,the aluminum reaction reduced the attenuation of shock waves and increased the work performed by gas phase products.A higher aluminum content increased the energy output while the presence of oxidants slowed the energy release rate.This work demonstrates an effective means of evaluating the performance of aluminized explosives.

Deflagration to detonation transition in weakly confined conditions for a type of potentially novel green primary explosive:Al/Fe_(2)O_(3)/RDX hybrid nanocomposites

The properties of the combustion and deflagration to detonation transition(DDT)of Al/Fe_(2)O_(3)/RDX hybrid nanocomposites,a type of potentially novel lead-free primary explosives,were tested in weakly confined conditions,and the interaction of Al/Fe_(2)O_(3)nanothermite and RDX in the DDT process was studied in detail.Results show that the amount of the Al/Fe_(2)O_(3)nanothermite has a great effect on the DDT properties of Al/Fe_(2)O_(3)/RDX nanocomposites.The addition of Al/Fe_(2)O_(3)nanothermite to RDX apparently improves the firing properties of RDX.A small amount of Al/Fe_(2)O_(3)nanothermite greatly increases the initial combustion velocity of Al/Fe_(2)O_(3)/RDX nanocomposites,accelerating their DDT process.When the contents of Al/Fe_(2)O_(3)nanothermite are less than 20 wt%,the DDT mechanisms of Al/Fe_(2)O_(3)/RDX nanocomposites follow the distinct abrupt mode,and are consistent with that of RDX,though their DDT processes are different.The RDX added into the Al/Fe_(2)O_(3)nanothermite increases the latter's peak combustion velocity and makes it generate the DDT when the RDX content is at least 10 wt%.RDX plays a key role in the shock compressive combustion,the formation and the properties of the DDT in the flame propagation of nanocomposites.Compared with RDX,the fast DDT of Al/Fe_(2)O_(3)/RDX nanocomposites could be obtained by adjusting the chemical constituents of nanocomposites.

Research of detonation products of RDX/Al from the perspective of composition

Aluminized explosives exhibit excellent performance because the oxidation of aluminum(Al)powders enhances the pressure and temperature of detonation products.However,the equation of state(EOS)of detonation products has not been understood well.In the present study,we conducted long-time tests(approximately 1 ms)of a metal rod driven by detonation products of RDX,RDX/Li F,and RDX/Al.In addition,we used laser velocimetry(PDV)to measure the freesurface velocity of the rod.Thermochemical code DLCHEQ was successfully applied to the hydrodynamic program SSS to perform the roddriven test,and a novel method was established to study the EOS of detonation products from the perspective of composition.The reliability of DLCEHQ was validated by a small deviation(<10%)between the experimental rod free-surface velocity of RDX and the calculated results;the deviation was considerably less than that from the results obtained using the JWL EOS and ideal-gas EOS.The endothermic process and the reaction of Al powders(Al+H_(2)O+NO+CO_(2)→CO+H_(2)+N_(2)+Al_(2)O_(3))were analyzed by calculating the rod free-surface velocity of RDX/Li F and RDX/Al,respectively.The results of the present study demonstrated that the thermodynamic state of Al powders has notable influence on the EOS of aluminized detonation products,and the findings were compared with those of previous studies.First,the temperature equilibrium between Al powders and CHNO products is not always achieved,and the disequilibrium is more obvious when the reaction of Al powders is stronger.Second,the reaction rate of Al powders depends on pressure and Al content.Finally,the endothermic process of Al powders has a high contribution to the decrease in the work ability of RDX/Al instead of the gasconsumption mechanism of the Al reaction.More than half of the reaction heat of Al powders is used to heat itself,whereas the gas consumption during the reaction is negligible.

High-Order Bound-Preserving Finite Difference Methods for Multispecies and Multireaction Detonations

In this paper,we apply high-order finite difference(FD)schemes for multispecies and multireaction detonations(MMD).In MMD,the density and pressure are positive and the mass fraction of the ith species in the chemical reaction,say zi,is between 0 and 1,withΣz_(i)=1.Due to the lack of maximum-principle,most of the previous bound-preserving technique cannot be applied directly.To preserve those bounds,we will use the positivity-preserving technique to all the zi'is and enforceΣz_(i)=1 by constructing conservative schemes,thanks to conservative time integrations and consistent numerical fluxes in the system.Moreover,detonation is an extreme singular mode of flame propagation in premixed gas,and the model contains a significant stiff source.It is well known that for hyperbolic equations with stiff source,the transition points in the numerical approximations near the shocks may trigger spurious shock speed,leading to wrong shock position.Intuitively,the high-order weighted essentially non-oscillatory(WENO)scheme,which can suppress oscillations near the discontinuities,would be a good choice for spatial discretization.However,with the nonlinear weights,the numerical fluxes are no longer“consistent”,leading to nonconservative numerical schemes and the bound-preserving technique does not work.Numerical experiments demonstrate that,without further numerical techniques such as subcell resolutions,the conservative FD method with linear weights can yield better numerical approximations than the nonconservative WENO scheme.

Dynamic analysis of buried pipeline with and without barrier system subjected to underground detonation

Failure of pipe networks due to blast loads resulting from terrorist attacks or construction facilities, may cause economic loss, environmental pollution, source of firing or even it may lead to a disaster. The present work develops a closed-form solution of buried pipe with barrier system subjected to subsurface detonation. The solution is derived based on the concept of double-beam system. Euler Bernoulli's beams are used to simulate the buried pipe and the barrier system. Soil is idealized as viscoelastic foundation along with shear interaction between discrete Winkler springs(advanced soil model). The finite SineFourier transform is employed to solve the coupled partial differential equations. The solution is validated with past studies. A parametric study is conducted to investigate the influence of TNT charge weight, pipe material, damping ratio and TNT offset on the response of buried pipe with and without barrier system. Further a statistical analysis is carried out to get the significant soil and pipe input parameters. It is perceived that peak pipe displacements for both the cases(with and without barrier) are increases with increasing the weight of TNT charge and decreases with increasing the damping ratio and TNT offset. The deformation of pipe also varies with pipe material. Pipe safety against blast loads can be ensured by providing suitable barrier layer. The present study can be utilized in preliminary design stage as an alternative to expensive numerical analysis or field study.

Study on the prediction and inverse prediction of detonation properties based on deep learning

The accurate and efficient prediction of explosive detonation properties has important engineering significance for weapon design.Traditional methods for predicting detonation performance include empirical formulas,equations of state,and quantum chemical calculation methods.In recent years,with the development of computer performance and deep learning methods,researchers have begun to apply deep learning methods to the prediction of explosive detonation performance.The deep learning method has the advantage of simple and rapid prediction of explosive detonation properties.However,some problems remain in the study of detonation properties based on deep learning.For example,there are few studies on the prediction of mixed explosives,on the prediction of the parameters of the equation of state of explosives,and on the application of explosive properties to predict the formulation of explosives.Based on an artificial neural network model and a one-dimensional convolutional neural network model,three improved deep learning models were established in this work with the aim of solving these problems.The training data for these models,called the detonation parameters prediction model,JWL equation of state(EOS)prediction model,and inverse prediction model,was obtained through the KHT thermochemical code.After training,the model was tested for overfitting using the validation-set test.Through the model-accuracy test,the prediction accuracy of the model for real explosive formulations was tested by comparing the predicted value with the reference value.The results show that the model errors were within 10%and 3%for the prediction of detonation pressure and detonation velocity,respectively.The accuracy refers to the prediction of tested explosive formulations which consist of TNT,RDX and HMX.For the prediction of the equation of state for explosives,the correlation coefficient between the prediction and the reference curves was above 0.99.For the prediction of the inverse prediction model,the prediction error of the explosive equation was within 9%.This indicates that the models have utility in engineering.

Numerical simulation of flow field characteristics and the improvement of pressure oscillation of rotating detonation engine

Due to the inherent working mode of rotating detonation engine(RDE),the detonation flow field has the characteristics of pressure oscillation and axial kinetic energy loss,which makes it difficult to design nozzle and improve propulsion performance.Therefore,in order to improve the characteristics of detonation flow field,the three-dimensional numerical simulation of annular chamber and hollow chamber is carried out with premixed hydrogen/air as fuel in this paper,and then tries to combine the two chambers to weaken the oscillation characteristics of detonation flow field through the interaction of detonation flow field,which is a new method to regulate the detonation flow field.The results show that there are four states of velocity vectors at the outlet of annular chamber and hollow chamber,which makes RDE be affected by rolling moment and results in the loss of axial kinetic energy.In the external flow field of combined chamber,the phenomenon of cyclic reflection of expansion wave and compression wave on the free boundary is observed,which results in Mach disk structure.Moreover,the pressure monitoring points are set at the external flow field.The pressure signal shows that the high-frequency pressure oscillation at the external flow field of the combined chamber has been greatly weakened.Compared to the annular chamber,the relative standard deviation(RSD) has been reduced from 14.6% to5.6%.The results thus demonstrate that this method is feasible to adjust the pressure oscillation characteristics of the detonation flow field,and is of great significance to promote the potential of RDE and nozzle design.

DETONATION INITIATION INDUCED BY FLAME IMPLOSION AND SHOCK WAVE FOCUSING

Computational simulations on structurally different detonation generator are carried out to study the phenomena,the mechanism and the gas dynamics characteristics of flame implosion and shock wave focusing.Two-dimensional axisymmetric and unsteady Navier-Stokes equations are numerically solved and detailed chemical reaction kinetics of hydrogen/air mixture is used.The simulation results show that the laminar flame generated by low energy spark in the jet flame burner is accelerated under the narrow channel,the jet flame impinging on the axis strengthens shock wave and the shock wave enhances flame acceleration.Under the function of multiple shock waves and flame,a number of hot spots appear between the wave and the surface.The spots enlarge rapidly,thus forming an over-drive detonation with high pressure,and then declining to stable detonation.Through calculation and analysis,the length of detonation initiation and stable detonation are obtained,thus providing the useful information for further experimental investigations.

Fabrication, tribological and corrosion behaviors of detonation gun sprayed Fe-based metallic glass coating

A metallic glass coating with the composition of Fe51.33Cr14.9Mo25.67Y3.4C3.44B1.26 （mole fraction, %） on the Q235 stainless steel was developed by the detonation gun （D-gun） spraying process. The microstructure and the phase aggregate were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffractometry, respectively. Microhardness, wear resistance and corrosion behavior were assessed using a Vickers microhardness tester, a ball-on-disk wear testing machine and the electrochemical measurement method, respectively. Microstructural studies show that the coatings possess a densely layered structure with the porosity less than 2.1%. The tribological behavior of the coatings examined under dry conditions shows that their relative wear resistance is five times higher than that of the substrate material. Both adhesive wear and abrasive wear contribute to the friction, but the former is the dominant wear mechanism of the metallic glass coatings. The coatings exhibit low passive current density and extremely wide passive region in 3.5% NaCl solution, thus indicating excellent corrosion resistance.

Microstructure, mechanical and oxidation characteristics of detonation gun and HVOF sprayed MCrAlYX coatings

Microstructure, mechanical property and oxidation resistance of MCrAlYX coatings prepared by detonation gun (D-gun) and HVOF spraying were investigated. Lamellar microstructure and uniform microstructure formed in D-gun sprayed MCrAlYX coating and HVOF sprayed coating, respectively. Element redistribution and formation of new phase took place during the detonation process. Besides, the porosity of D-gun sprayed coating was much lower than that of HVOF sprayed coating. On the mechanical property, the micro-hardnesses of the two coatings were in the same level (~HV 910). However, D-gun sprayed MCrAlYX coating exhibited larger standard deviation of microhardness due to its lamellar microstructure, and exhibited better bend bonding strength owing to the existence of residual compressive stress between the layers and particles. Meanwhile, due to the much more compact microstructure, D-gun sprayed MCrAlYX coating showed superior oxidation resistance to the HVOF sprayed coating. The continuous dense protective layer can form earlier in D-gun sprayed coating and thus suppress further oxidation and control the oxide thickness at a relatively low level.

Purification of Ultrafine Diamond Synthesized by Detonation

Ultrafine diamond (UFD) is produced at high pressure and high temperature generated by explosive detonation. We manage to search for a new technology to purify the UFD by using potassium permanganate and concentrated sulfuric acid as oxidant. The experiment results show that, compared with others, the purifying effect by this technology is satisfactory and is a more efficient, cheaper, and safer purification technology with less pollution and less investment. It can be put into commercial use. The related principle of the technology is discussed. It is believed that the atomic state oxygen produced during the reaction mechanism is an active substances which would react with the graphite——the main impurity existing in the detonation soot, and the reaction temperature is the key factor in the process.

A numerical study of two-and three-dimensional detonation dynamics of pulse detonation engine by the CE/SE method

In this paper, the CE/SE method is developed to simulate the two- and three-dimensional flow-field of Pulse Detonation Engine (PDE). The conservation equations with stiff source terms for chemical reaction are solved in two steps. The detailed analysis of computational results of a PDE with a single detonation tube and a PDE with five detonation tubes are given in this paper. Complex wave systems are observed inside and outside a PDE. For a PDE with 5 detonation tubes, there is a big bow shock produced from a number of little shocks near the open ends of tubes. A lot of vortexes interact with shocks and a large expansion wave propagates forward and backward with respect to the PDE in a semi-oval shape.

Application of Two-dimensional Viscous CE/SE Method in Calculation of Two-phase Detonation

The method of two-dimensional viscous space-time conservation element and solution element (CE/SE) can be used to calculate the gas-liquid two-phase interior flow field in pulse detonation engine (PDE). In this paper, the evolution of the detonation wave and the distribution of its physical parameters were analyzed. The numerical results show that the change of axial velocity of gas is the same as that of detonation pressure. The larger the liquid droplet radius is, the longer the time to get stable detonation wave is. The calculated results coincide with the experimented results better.

Theoretical analysis on deflagration-to-detonation transition

The study on deflagration-to-detonation transition （DDT） is very important because this mechanism has relevance to safety issues in industries, where combustible premixed gases are in general use. However, the quantitative prediction of DDT is one of the major unsolved problems in combustion and detonation theory to date. In this paper, the DDT process is studied theoretically and the critical condition is given by a concise theoretical expression. The results show that a deflagration wave propagating with about 60% Chapman-Jouguet （C J） detonation velocity is a critical condition. This velocity is the maximum propagating velocity of a deflagration wave and almost equal to the sound speed of combustion products. When this critical condition is reached, a CJ detonation is triggered immediately. This is the quantitative criteria of the DDT process.

Fracture mechanism of a cylindrical shell cut by circumferential detonation collision

The failure mechanism of a cylindrical shell cut into fragments by circumferential detonation collision was experimentally and numerically investigated.A self-designed detonation wave regulator was used to control the detonation and cut the shell.It was found that the self-designed regulator controlled the fragment shape.The macrostructure and micro-characteristics of fragments revealed that shear fracture was a prior mechanism,the shell fractured not only at the position of detonation collision,but the crack also penetrated the shell at the first contact position of the Chapmen-Jouguet(C-J)wave.The effects of groove number and outer layer thickness on the fracture behavior were tested by simulations.When the thickness of the outer layer was 5e18 mm,it has little effect on fragmentation of the shell,and shells all fractured at similar positions.The increase of the groove number reduced the fracture possibility of the first contact position of the C-J wave.When the groove number reached 7 with a 10 mm outer layer(1/4 model),the fracture only occurred at the position of detonation collision and the fragment width rebounded.

OXYHYDROGEN COMBUSTION AND DETONATION DRIVEN SHOCK TUBE

The performance of combustion driver ignited by multi-spark plugs distributed along axial direction has been analysed and tested. An improved ignition method with three circumferential equidistributed ignitors at main diaphragm has been presented, by which the produced incident shock waves have higher repeatability, and better steadiness in the pressure, temperature and velocity fields of flow behind the incidence shock, and thus meets the requirements of aerodynamic experiment. The attachment of a damping section at the end of the driver can eliminate the high reflection pressure produced by detonation wave, and the backward detonation driver can be employed to generate high enthalpy and high density test flow. The incident shock wave produced by this method is well repeated and with weak attenuation. The reflection wave caused by the contracted section at the main diaphragm will weaken the unfavorable effect of rarefaction wave behind the detonation wave, which indicates that the forward detonation driver can be applied in the practice. For incident shock wave of identical strength, the initial pressure of the forward detonation driver is about 1 order of magnitude lower than that of backward detonation.