Technical efficiency of cocoa farms at varying elevation levels in Davao City, Philippines: implications to sustainable upland farming systems

Elevation is one of many components that influence agriculture, and this in turn affects the level of both inputs and outputs of farmers. This article focuses on the productivity and technical efficiency of 100 cocoa farms using cross-sectional data from areas ranging from 190 to 1021 m above sea level which were classified as low, medium, and high elevation in Davao City, considered as the chocolate capital of the Philippines. Using stochastic frontier analysis, the results showed that the cost of inputs per ha and the number of cocoa trees per ha significantly increase yield. Farms at high elevations were less technically efficient, as this entails lower temperatures and increased rainfall, and cocoa farming in those areas and conditions can be more challenging, especially with changes in farming practices, terrain, and distance to markets. Other significant variables were age of cocoa farms, married farmers, and age of the farmers. Older farms may be more developed, farmers who are married benefit from their spouses being able to readily contribute as farm labor, and lastly, older farmers' inefficiency may likely stem from nonadaptation of newer farming practices. With an average technical efficiency of 0.61, 0.63, and 0.26 in low, medium, and high elevation areas, respectively, farmers therefore have an incentive to improve farm practices and consider topographical variations found in high elevation areas. Recommendations for the improvement of technical efficiency of cocoa farms are better connectivity to markets, enhancing farm practices, and continuation and improvement of government programs on cocoa with an added emphasis on research. For farmers in high elevation areas, mitigating solutions such as sustainable agriculture practices and ecolabelling are key to improving efficiency and minimizing the potential negative impact on upland farming systems. Moreover, such adaptation measures may also contribute to sustainability of cocoa farming in high elevation areas.

Soil chemical properties under modern and traditional farming systems at Khagrachari,Chittagong Hill Tracts,Bangladesh

Land degradation in Chittagong hill tracts has been taking place due to shrinkage of forest cover, policy weakness, population explosion, and inappropriate hill farming system. Modem farming system in the Chittagong hill tracts like Sloping Agricultural Land Technology （SALT） is practiced to provide a new strategy for developing lands for economic productivity and bio-diversity conservation through establishment of ecological community rather than traditional shifting cultivation which is no longer sustainable according to the carrying capacity of ecosystem of Chittagong hill tracts. This study is to find out changing trends of soil chemical properties of sites under modem and traditional farming systems at Khagrachari district of Chittagong hill tracts. The result of the research shows that Sloping Agricultural Land Technology has significantly higher capacity of production due to the presence of the highest percentage of organic carbon, organic matter, compared with shifting cultivated site. The study recommends that shifting cultivation may be changed into a relatively stable semi-permanent farming system through developing participatory integrated farming systems to establish stable production environment in the Chittagong Hill Tracts.

Analysis on Development Potential of Agricultural Resources of Farming System in Shandong Province

Based on the characteristics of agricultural resources and social resources in Shandong Province, the approaches of developing farming system potential were discussed, which provide important references for sustainable development of modern farming system.

Long Term Effects of Farming System on Soil Water Content and Dry Soil Layer in Deep Loess Profile of Loess Tableland in China

Soil water is strongly affected by land use/cover in the Loess Plateau in China. Water stored in thick loessal soils is one of the most important resources regulating vegetation growth. However, soil water in the deep loess proifle, which is critical for maintaining the function of the“soil water pool”is rarely studied because deep proifle soil samples are dififcult to collect. In this study, four experimental plots were established in 2005 to represent different farming systems on the Changwu Tableland：fallow land, fertilized cropland, unfertilized cropland, and continuous alfalfa. The soil water content in the 15-m-deep loess proifles was monitored continuously from 2007 to 2012 with the neutron probe technique. The results showed that temporal variations in soil water proifles differed among the four farming systems. Under fallow land, the soil water content increased gradually over time, ifrst in the surface layers and later in the deep soil layers. In contrast, the soil water content decreased gradually under continuous alfalfa. The distributions of soil water in deep soil layers under both fertilized and unfertilized cropland were relatively stable over time. Thus farming system signiifcantly affected soil water content. Seven years after the start of the experiment, the soil water contents in the 15-m-deep proifles averaged 23.4%under fallow land, 20.3%under fertilized cropland, 21.6%under unfertilized cropland, and 16.0%under continuous alfalfa. Compared to measurements at the start of the experiment, both fallow land and unfertilized cropland increased soil water storage in the 15-m loess proifles. In contrast, continuous alfalfa reduced soil water storage. Fertilized cropland has no signiifcant effect on soil water storage. These results suggest that deep soil water can be replenished under the fallow and unfertilized farming systems. Dry soil layers （i.e., those which have soil water content less than the stable ifeld water capacity） in the subsoil of the Changwu Tableland region can be classiifed as either temporary dry soil layers or persistent dry soil layers. Temporary dry soil layers, which typically form under annual crops, often disappear during wet years. Persistent dry soil layers generally develop under perennial vegetation. Even after removing the vegetation, persistent dry soil layers remain for several decades. This study provides information useful for the conservation and utilization of soil water resources in the Loess Tableland.

The Evolution of Organic Carbon in Chinese Mollisol Under Different Farming Systems: Validation and Prediction by Using Century Model

Soil organic carbon （SOC） is an important indicator of soil degradation process. In this study, the long-term SOC evolution in Chinese mollisol farmland was simulated and predicted by validating, analyzing, processing and assorting concerning data, based on clarifying parameters of Century model need, combined with best use of recorded data of field management, observed data of long-term experiments, climate, soil, and biology, and achieved results from Hailun Agro-Ecological Experimental Station, Chinese Academy of Sciences. The results were showed as follows： Before reclamation, SOC content was around 58.00 g kg^-1, SOC content dropped quickly in early years, and then decreased slowly after reclamation. SOC content was around 34.00 g kg^-1 with a yearly average rate of 8.91‰ decrease before long-term experiments was established. After a long-term experiment, SOC would change under different farming systems. Shift farming system changed as follows： By 20-year model simulation, SOC content decreased from 34.03 to 30.19 g kg^-1, with a yearly average rate of 5.97‰; by 100-year model simulation, SOC content decreased to 24.31 g kg^-1, with a yearly average rate of 3.36‰. Organic farming system changed as follows： By 20-year model simulation, SOC content decreased slowly from 34.03 to 33.39 g kg^-1, with a yearly average rate of 0.95‰, 5‰ less than that of shift farming system; by 100-year model simulation, SOC content decreased to 32.21 g kg^-1, with a yearly average rate of 0.55‰. ＂Petroleum＂ farming system changed as follows： By 20-year model simulation, SOC content decreased from 34.03 to 32.88 g kg^-1, with a yearly average rate of 1.72‰, much more than that of organic farming system; by 100-year model simulation, SOC content decreased to 30.89 g kg^-1, with a yearly average rate of 0.96‰. Combined ＂petroleum＂-organic farming system changed as follows： By 20-year model simulation, SOC content was increased slightly; by 100-year model simulation, SOC content increased from 34.03 to 34.41g kg^-1, with a yearly average rate of 0.11‰. The above results provided an optimal way for maintaining SOC in Chinese mollisol farmland： To increase, as much as possible within agro-ecosystem, soil organic matter returns such as crop stubble, crop litter, crop straw or stalk, and manure, besides applying chemical nitrogen and phosphorous, which increased system productivity and maintained SOC content as well. Also, the results provided a valuable methodology both for a study of CO2 sequestration capacity and for a target fertility determination in Chinese mollisol.

Spatial Landuse and Farming System Analyses of Reclaimed Tidal Lowland in South Sumatra, Indonesia

This study aims to analyze spatial landuse and farming system of reclamated tidal lowland in South Sumatra, Indonesia by using remote sensing technology and GIS in knowing the distribution of landuse change of tidal lowland. From these conditions, it can see cropping patterns on each of the secondary block and its relation to the condition of the water system network. The study was carried out in Delta Saleh areas. The used methodology was field survey and remote sensing technique. It was combined with GIS technology for spatial analysis. Over the last 11 years （1992-2002）, a decline in the paddy field area is from 23,619.4 ha to 18,518.40 ha （27.65%）. A decrease of river acreage （water body） occurred from 6,643.53 ha to 6,559.83 ha. In 1992 it has not detected any coconut plantation, while in 2001 it showed an area of coconut plantation 3,422.84 ha and 3,822.84 ha in 20l l. Significant changes are also presented in primary mangrove forest, widespread declining around 1,940.88 ha （147.20%）. Most of the mangrove forest was converted into secondary mangrove forest and scrub. Linkage with topography type showed that the land with topography Type A was majority for paddy fields 250.28-262.80 ha （62.72%-65.59%）. Mixed crop fields were in second place with acreage of 90.66-107.36 ha （22.72%-26.80%）. The land with topography Type B showed the widest paddy fields （283.14-314.20 ha or 70.70%-78.48%）, followed by upland crops. The land with topography Type C showed that paddy fields were 283.03-300.41 ha （70.66%-75.02 %）, followed by upland crops 94.85-102.78 ha （23.69%-25.66%）, and coconut was the smallest 0.09-0.27 ha. Generally, the cropping index was 100 on PS-I （planting season 1） for BL-I （business land 1） and BL-2 planted with paddy fields, while the PS-2 are generally not cultivated land （fallow）.

Protected Areas, Subsistence Farming Systems and Nature Conservation

The preservation of the traditional subsistence farming systems and the conservation of natural values （habitats, fauna and flora）, in articulation with local development, was the key issues in this paper. The farmers have been able to manage the systems so as to cope with adverse conditions, but their future is quite uncertain. The methodology included： （1） field observation visits and cartographic information analysis of land use; （2） structured interviews with animal production and agro-forestry specialists; and （3） meetings with the participation of stakeholders. The paper concludes that depopulation is responsible for the increasing decline of agriculture and livestock. The decrease in agricultural activity in general and the consequent practices and traditional systems of agriculture causes changes in the landscape and has negative effects on nature conservation and biodiversity. Thus, we believe that the preservation and development of traditional economic activities linked to agriculture, agro-forestry and food processing are essential to maintain the typical landscape and to preserve natural values of Montemuro Site. The paper shows that in mountain areas, particularly those classified as nature network sites, farming, economic development and nature conservation are not antagonistic objectives.

Nutrient Intake of Rural Households That Participated in a Farming System for Nutrition Study in India

Food based approach can prove effective in improving access and availability of nutrients from foods required for daily life where most of the people depend on agriculture for their livelihood. A study on feasibility of Farming Systems for Nutrition (FSN) approach was undertaken from 2013 to 2018 in a few villages of Koraput district, Odisha state and Wardha district, Maharashtra state in India. Interventions were done to increase crop diversity, intercropping of pulses and cereals, promotion of seasonal vegetables and fruits along with nutrition awareness. The endline survey showed increase in production diversity leading to improved household dietary diversity. This paper demonstrates the impact of FSN interventions on household nutrient intake. The results show that the intake of nutrients like protein, vitamin C, iron and calcium increased significantly in Koraput and all the nutrients including energy and vitamin A increased significantly in Wardha. The evidence shows that Farming System for Nutrition approach improves individual nutrient intake which in the long run can address the problem of undernutrition.

Agroforestry for Climate Change Adaptation,Resilience Enhancement and Vulnerability Attenuation in Smallholder Farming Systems in Cameroon

The adverse impacts of climate variability and change are felt mostly by smallholder farmers and smallholder farming systems where rain-fed agriculture is predominant.Continuous dependence on rain-fed agriculture has led to declining crop productivity and crop failure in most cases as weather patterns shift which is very problematic for crop growth.Agroforestry which is one of the climate-smart,environmentally benign and agroecological practices has been found to mitigate climate change adversities while fostering adaptation,enhancing resilience and attenuating vulnerability especially in smallholder farming systems.However,in Cameroon,limited empirical research has been done to ascertain the role played by agroforestry in climate change adaptation,resilience enhancement and vulnerability attenuation.This paper which is based on an in-depth review of literature was undertaken to uncover what has been done so far in terms of empirical studies tackling the role played by agroforestry in climate change adaptation,resilience and vulnerability attenuation in Cameroon.It was found that most of the empirical studies have been carried out in one agroecological zone-the western highlands of Cameroon,showing that smallholder farmers adopt different agroforestry practices in the face of climate change with the most common being home gardens with livestock,home gardens without livestock,scattered trees on croplands,improved fallows,live fences/hedges and windbreaks,coffee-based agroforestry,cocoa-based agroforestry,apiculture-based agroforestry,fodder banks,and plantation crop-based agroforestry practices.These agroforestry practices provide a plethora of ecosystem services categorized into provisioning,supporting,regulating and cultural which play an important role towards fostering climate change adaptation,enhancing resilience and attenuating vulnerability in smallholder farming systems.From the findings uncovered by this study,it is imperative for more empirical studies to be carried out in the other four agroecological zones of Cameroon where there is a paucity of information regarding the role played by agroforestry towards fostering climate change adaptation,enhancing resilience and attenuating vulnerability in smallholder farming systems.

The Effect of Land Degradation on Farm Size Dynamics and Crop-Livestock Farming System in Ethiopia: A Review

Ethiopia is among the poorest countries in which poverty, land and resource degradation appear to feed off each other. The irony is that Ethiopia is a country with high biodiversity and distinctive ecosystems and the natural resource base is critical to the economy and the livelihood of a high percentage of the population. Being the owner of varying agro ecology, the country’s agricultural production system had practiced for decades with a maximum potential. However, because of the presence of interrelated problems, the productivity had not sustained as its potential. From the interrelated problems, land degradation takes the first and challengeable problem in many countries. Land degradation refers to a temporary or permanent decline in the productive capacity of the land, or its potential for environmental management as a result;the long-term biological and environmental potential of the land has been compromised. Land degradation in the Ethiopian highlands (i.e. areas above 1500 m.a.s.l.) has been a concern for many years and is a great threat for the future that requires great effort and resources to ameliorate. It had adverse effect on lowering of livestock production by shrinking grazing land, the fertile soil types were washed and the grazing land was dominantly covered by unpalatable pastures and grasses which had low nutritive value and fertility for crop-livestock production system. In other cases, degradation induces farmers to convert land to lower-value uses;for instance, cropland converted to grazing land, or grazing lands converted to shrubs or forests. Equitable and secure access to land is a critical factor for the rural poor, especially livestock owners, who depend on agriculture and animal-related activities for their livelihood. Having secure access to land for agriculture and pastoral activities reduces their vulnerability and enhances their opportunities to invest in land for agriculture and livestock activities. Historical patterns of feudal ownership of land followed by government ownership and despite policy change uncertain status of land ownership. These land distribution and ownership patterns coupled with continuous fragmentations and degradation disrupt the balance between crop, livestock, and forest production. These things nowadays enforce Ethiopian farmers to put more land into crop production than working on livestock sector. Livelihoods are complex, dependent on animal and crop production based on land and water resources, with emerging market opportunities. And from year to year, the size of farms is getting minimized because of land degradation and segmentations, and these make a change in farm size dynamics and farming shift. Currently, there is a great scenario towards the land policy pattern and agricultural production system, which is the backbone of the country’s economy. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to review the effect of land degradation on farm size dynamics and crop-livestock production since the impact of these things is not well measured.

Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation in Rainfed Farming Systems: A Modeling Framework for Scaling-Out Climate Smart Agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa

Improving agricultural water productivity, under rainfed or irrigated conditions, holds significant scope for addressing climate change vulnerability. It also offers adaptation capacity needs as well as water and food security in the southern African region. In this study, evidence for climate change impacts and adaptation strategies in rainfed agricultural systems is explored through modeling predictions of crop yield, soil moisture and excess water for potential harvesting. The study specifically presents the results of climate change impacts under rainfed conditions for maize, sorghum and sunflower using soil-water-crop model simulations, integrated based on daily inputs of rainfall and evapotranspiration disaggregated from GCM scenarios. The research targets a vast farming region dominated by heavy clay soils where rainfed agriculture is a dominant practice. The potential for improving soil water productivity and improved water harvesting have been explored as ways of climate change mitigation and adaptation measures. This can be utilized to explore and design appropriate conservation agriculture and adaptation practices in similar agro-ecological environments, and create opportunities for outscaling for much wider areas. The results of this study can suggest the need for possible policy refinements towards reducing vulnerability and adaptation to climate change in rainfed farming systems.

Variations of Farming Systems and Their Impacts on Surface Water Environment in Past 60 Years in Intensive Agricultural Area of Taihu Region, China

Based on agricultural nitrogen (N) balance model and field experiments, the impacts of farming system changes of Taihu Region of China on surface water environment were studied. During past 60 years, farming systems changed greatly in Taihu Region. The traditional method of manure collection and application was replaced by chemical fertilizer utilization gradually. Chemical N fertilization intensity decreased greatly due to the abolition of “3 crops per year” and reduction of cropland area in 1990-2010. Crops depleting soil fertility increased, while those improving soil fertility decreased, leading to an excessive dependence on chemical fertilizer application, which increased the risks of soil N loss to surface water environment in Taihu region. However, field experiments showed that the agricultural N loss with runoff only accounted for 2% of fertilizer N application rate. The majority of N was exported by crop harvesting. Our findings showed that the agricultural N loss might not be the main source of N pollution in Lake Tai after 2000. To control N pollution of Lake Tai, more attention should be paid to industrial and domestic wastewater from urban and rural areas, wastes from livestock and poultry breeding, bait input for aquaculture, etc in the Taihu Region, China.

Farming systems and crop-livestock land use consensus. Tanzanian perspectives

Agriculture is an important source of economic survival of rural populations, and with great power for poverty reduction in the economy. For this reason farming systems that are most efficient have to be sought. This paper explores crop-based and pastoralism farming systems under conflicting land use relations. Incidences of violent conflicts are highlighted, which usually assume a depoliticised expression as inter-group conflicts. Competition for resources (land and water) is an important reason for such conflict, but the role of the state in protection of property rights is also advocated to nurture rivalry. Very wide difference in conception, that to the pastoralists property is cattle, land is common property open to herds, while to crop farmers land is property, which is divided between households, complicates the conflict resolution. State bias exists in the protection of property rights. Mechanisms for the state bias arebriefly cited. This paper suggests a farming systems educational approach as a way to reduce environmentally stressful practice, and strengthen the study of administrative regulation that harmonizes equity in conflicting land use.

Trace Metal Elements (Pb, Cd and As), 15N Nitrogen and Phosphorus Isotopes Accumulation in Three Varieties of Tomato from Conventional and Agro-Ecological Farming Systems in Burkina Faso

Tomato is a market gardening product that plays an important nutritional and economic role in Burkina Faso. However, the bad use of pesticides for its production could have negative impacts consumers’ health. The objective of the present study was to assess the concentration of trace metal elements (Pb, Cd and As), 15N isotopes (NO2-, NO3-, NH4+) and phosphorus (PO42-) in tomatoes according to cultivation practices. Thus, three tomato varieties (Mongal F1, F1 Cobra 26 and Roma F1) were grown using organic and conventional production methods on 2 sites at Nongr Massom, (commune of Kadiogo province). The trace metal elements were analyzed using atomic absorption spectrophotometry, the isotopes 15N (NO2-, NO3-, NH4+) and phosphorus (PO43-) using standardized methods. Tomatoes from conventional agriculture had higher levels of trace metal elements (0.163 - 0.298 mg/Kg, 0.082 - 0.146 mg/Kg and 0.018 - 0.032 mg/Kg respectively for Pb, Cd and As) than those from organic agriculture samples. Concentration of trace metal is lower for organic production with a reduction of 19.02%, 19.69% and 20.77% for Pb, Cd and As respectively compared to conventional production. High levels were recorded for the Roma F1 variety. The concentrations of trace metal elements in organic production are lower than the codex standards (2010) while those in conventional production are higher. These results could be due to the use of chemical inputs that could have a negative impact on the nutritional quality of these tomatoes. The concentration of trace metal elements in tomato fruits is strongly correlated by production method and less by the variety (genetic).

Validating the Classification of Smallholder Dairy Farming Systems Based on Herd Genetic Structure and Access to Breeding Services

Smallholder dairy farming in Africa is classified into rural, peri-urban and urban systems. The major classification criterion is demographic. Dairy systems are extensively characterized, but not based on rigorous statistical analyses. We validated this classification based on herd genetic structure and identify determinants of within-system variations, taking Ethiopia as a case study. Discriminant function analysis correctly classified 38% - 50.6% of the 360 sampled farms into the three systems. Multinomial logistic regression analysis showed that rural and peri-urban farmers were 1.26 (P < 0.1) to 1.45 (P < 0.001) times more likely to keep local and low grade crossbreds and fewer high grade crosses (P < 0.05;odds ratio = 2.35) than the urban farmers. In the rural system, proportion of high grade crosses declined and low grades increased over generations, whereas in urban system the reverse was observed. Access to breeding services and land resources significantly determined the adoption of crossbred dairy herd within systems. In conclusion, considering farms within systems as a uniform unit to target development interventions may not be appropriate and thus farm topologies and system specific determinants of farmers’ breeding strategies need to be considered to design and introduce appropriate breeding interventions.

Adaptation of Root Crop Farming System to Climate Change in Ikwerre Local Government Area of Rivers State, Nigeria

This study examined adaptation of root crop farming system to climate change in Ikwerre Local Government Area of Rivers state, Nigeria. Seven towns were selected based on a population of five thousand and above from which one hundred and ninety-one respondents were randomly chosen. Sixty-six years’ data on climatic variables of rainfall, temperature and relative humidity were obtained from Nigeria Meteorological Agency between 1950-2015. Analyses were carried out using simple proportion for qualitative variables while mean and standard deviation were used in analyzing the qualitative variable. Similarly, the triangulation method involving qualitative and quantitative components in data generation was used. Results showed that, there had been a steady but gradual increase in the mean annual minimum and maximum temperatures over the study period of thirty years. The overall mean rainfall computed was 191.1 mm. In general, there was a shift increase in both rainfall and temperature during the period under study. The respondents attributed crop failure (100%), reduced crop yield (100%), increase incidence of pest and diseases (100%) and delay in planting period (100%) as direct effects of climate change. A steady trend in relative humidity of (84.3%) was recorded and the mean annual wind speed computed was 67.9 knots. The adapted strategies include delay planting period, crop diversification 100%, cultivation of early maturing crops such as maize, vegetables, intercropped with the root crops and changes in the time of farm operations (99.4%) as well as a change in the planting period and changing farm location (98.9%). The latter will in addition to other benefits reduce the incidences of pest and diseases that may be attracted to the same field if continuously cultivated with the same crops. An implementable policy of accessibility of finance to the real farmers is seriously advocated.

Soil Erosion of Varions Farming Systems in SnbtropicalChina

In order to optimise land use systems, to prevent erosion-induced degradation and to restore the degradedred soils in subtropical China, five cropping systems and four agroforestry systems were conducted in red soilswith a slope of 7° from 1993 to 1995. The results showed that erosion risk period occurred from April to June,and the annual runoff and the losses of soil and nutrients with sediment were alarming for two conventionalfarming systems, whereas they were negligible for the farming systems with ridge tillage. Enrichment ratiosof the lost soils from erosion were more than 1 .20 for all nutrients with much higher values for hydrolysable Nand organic matter. Compared with the control, the alley cropping systems also distinctly decreased runoffby 30% or 50%. However, the coverage of soil surface varied with alley cropping systems for the competitionof nutrients and soil water, which made a profound difference in runoff. The cropping systems of sweet potatointercropped with soybean, the alley cropping systems and the measures of mulching and ridge tillage werethe alternatives for red soil reclamation so as to prevent erosion-induced degradation.

Feed profile analysis of oil palm‐integrated beef cattle farming systems by metabolic energy budgeting and implications for beef production and pastoral system design

Background:Oil palm is a tropical crop with worldwide plantings approaching 20 million ha and large areas in Indonesia,Malaysia and Thailand.The plantations are readily managed as silvopastoral systems incorporating cattle grazing(Oil Palm Silvopastoral System for Cattle,OPSC)but there is a need for analytical tools and data to understand system herbage supply and feed conversion efficiency(FCE).Methods:Metabolic energy budgeting was used to estimate herbage harvested by cattle in three OPSC subsystems,9 and 12 years after oil palm establishment,and FCE of the subsystems was determined.Understorey herbage was also analysed for nutritive value,botanical composition and herbage accumulation within one grazing‐regrowth cycle.Results:The herbage‐harvested estimate was 2.0−2.4 t dry matter(DM)ha^(-1) year^(-1) for 9 year old subsystems and 1.4-1.7 tDMha^(-1) year^(-1) for a 12 year old subsystem.Herbage metabolisable energy(ME)was 8.3−8.5 MJ kg^(-1) DM and crude protein(CP)was 15%-16%DM.FCE values for subsystems ranged from 32 to 94 kg DM kg^(-1) liveweight‐gain.Conclusions:Herbage DM yield is declining,while herbage ME is marginal but CP is adequate.FCE is suboptimal but can be optimised by defining the trajectory of declining herbage production with canopy closure as plantations age and matching stocking rate to herbage supply using a comparativestocking‐rate‐type statistic.

Smart Farming for Sustainable Rice Production:An Insight into Application,Challenge,and Future Prospect

Rice has a huge impact on socio-economic growth,and ensuring its sustainability and optimal utilization is vital.This review provides an insight into the role of smart farming in enhancing rice productivity.The applications of smart farming in rice production including yield estimation,smart irrigation systems,monitoring disease and growth,and predicting rice quality and classifications are highlighted.The challenges of smart farming in sustainable rice production to enhance the understanding of researchers,policymakers,and stakeholders are discussed.Numerous efforts have been exerted to combat the issues in rice production in order to promote rice sector development.The effective implementation of smart farming in rice production has been facilitated by various technical advancements,particularly the integration of the Internet of Things and artificial intelligence.The future prospects of smart farming in transforming existing rice production practices are also elucidated.Through the utilization of smart farming,the rice industry can attain sustainable and resilient production systems that could mitigate environmental impact and safeguard food security.Thus,the rice industry holds a bright future in transforming current rice production practices into a new outlook in rice smart farming development.

Transient Stability Preventive Control of Wind Farm Connected Power System Considering the Uncertainty

To address uncertainty as well as transient stability constraints simultaneously in the preventive control of windfarm systems, a novel three-stage optimization strategy is established in this paper. In the first stage, the probabilisticmulti-objective particle swarm optimization based on the point estimate method is employed to cope with thestochastic factors. The transient security region of the system is accurately ensured by the interior point methodin the second stage. Finally, the verification of the final optimal objectives and satisfied constraints are enforcedin the last stage. Furthermore, the proposed strategy is a general framework that can combine other optimizationalgorithms. The proposed methodology is tested on the modified WSCC 9-bus system and the New England 39-bussystem. The results verify the feasibility of the method.