The role of monocytes in optic nerve injury

Monocytes,including monocyte-derived macrophages and resident microglia,mediate many phases of optic nerve injury pathogenesis.Resident microglia respond first,followed by infiltrating macrophages which regulate neuronal inflammation,cell proliferation and differentiation,scar formation and tissue remodeling following optic nerve injury.However,microglia and macrophages have distinct functions which can be either beneficial or detrimental to the optic nerve depending on the spatial context and temporal sequence of their activity.These divergent effects are attributed to pro-and anti-inflammatory cytokines expressed by monocytes,crosstalk between monocyte and glial cells and even microglia-macrophage communication.In this review,we describe the dynamics and functions of microglia and macrophages in neuronal inflammation and regeneration following optic nerve injury,and their possible role as therapeutic targets for axonal regeneration.

Biomechanical analysis of optic nerve injury treated by compound light granules and ciliary neurotrophic factor

In this study, rabbit models of optic nerve injury were reproduced by the clamp method. After modeling, rabbit models were given one injection of 50 ng recombinant human ciliary neurotrophic factor into the vitreous body and/or intragastric injection of 4 g/kg compound light granules containing Radix Angelicae Sinensis and Raidix Paeoniae Alba at 4 days after modeling, once per day for 30 consecutive days. After administration, the animals were sacrificed and the intraorbital optic nerve was harvested. Hematoxylin-eosin staining revealed that the injured optic nerve was thinner and optic nerve fibers were irregular. After treatment with recombinant human ciliary neurotrophic factor, the arrangement of optic nerve fibers was disordered but they were not markedly thinner. After treatment with compound light granules, the arrangement of optic nerve fibers was slightly disordered and their structure was intact. After combined treatment with recombinant human ciliary neurotrophic factor and compound light granules, the arrangement of optic nerve fibers was slightly disordered and the degree of injury was less than after either treatment alone. Results of tensile mechanical testing of the optic nerve showed that the tensile elastic limit strain, elastic limit stress, maximum stress and maximum strain of the injured optic nerve were significantly lower than the normal optic nerve. After treatment with recombinant human ciliary neurotrophic factor and/or compound light granules, the tensile elastic limit strain, elastic limit stress, maximum stress and maximum strain of the injured optic nerve were significantly increased, especially after the combined treatment. These experimental findings indicate that compound light granules and ciliary neurotrophic factor can alleviate optic nerve injury at the histological and biochemical levels, and the combined treatment is more effective than either treatment alone.

Research progress of stem cells on glaucomatous optic nerve injury

Glaucoma, the second leading cause of blindness, is an irreversible optic neuropathy. The mechanism of optic nerve injury caused by glaucoma is undefined at present. There is no effective treatment method for the injury. Stem cells have the capacity of self-renewal and differentiation. These two features have made them become the research focus on improving the injury at present. This paper reviews the application progress on different types of stem cells therapy for optic nerve injury caused by glaucoma.

Human umbilical cord blood stem cells and brainderived neurotrophic factor for optic nerve injury: a biomechanical evaluation

Treatment for optic nerve injury by brain-derived neurotrophic factor or the transplantation of human umbilical cord blood stem cells has gained progress, but analysis by biomechanical indicators is rare. Rabbit models of optic nerve injury were established by a clamp. At 7 days after injury, the vitreous body received a one-time injection of 50 μg brain-derived neurotrophic factor or 1 × 10^6 human umbilical cord blood stem cells. After 30 days, the maximum load, maximum stress, maximum strain, elastic limit load, elastic limit stress, and elastic limit strain had clearly improved in rabbit models of optical nerve injury after treatment with brain-derived neurotrophic factor or human umbilical cord blood stem cells. The damage to the ultrastructure of the optic nerve had also been reduced. These findings suggest that human umbilical cord blood stem cells and brain-derived neurotrophic factor effectively repair the injured optical nerve, improve biomechanical properties, and contribute to the recovery after injury.

Alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor antagonist inhibits apoptosis of retinal ganglion cells in a rabbit model of optic nerve injury

A rabbit model of traumatic optic nerve injury, established by occlusion of the optic nerve using a vascular clamp, was used to investigate the effects of alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor antagonist GYKI 52466 on apoptosis of retinal ganglion cells following nerve injury. Hematoxylin-eosin staining and a terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling assay showed that retinal ganglion cells gradually decreased with increasing time of optic nerve injury, while GYKI 52466 could inhibit this process. The results demonstrate that following acute optic nerve injury, apoptosis of retinal ganglion cells is a programmed process, which can be inhibited by the alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor antagonist.

AB006.Longitudinal effects of an optic nerve injury on behavioural measures of visual functions

Background:Visual deficits,caused by ocular disease or trauma,can cause lasting damage.However,recent research has focused on neural plasticity as a means to regain visual functions.In order to better understand the involvement of neural plasticity and reorganization in partial vision restoration,we aim to evaluate the partial recovery of a visual deficit over time using two behavioural tests.In our study,a partial optic nerve crush(pONC)serves as an induced visual deficit,allowing for residual vision from surviving cells.Methods:Visual functions in C57BL/6 mice was measured using two behavioural tests prior to a bilateral pONC,then at various time points after the pONC.In this study,two injury intensities were used:a high intensity pONC with the full force of self-closing forceps,and a low intensity pONC,in which a calibrated space was left between the forceps at the closed position.The two behavioural tests consisted of the optomotor reflex(OMR)and the visual cliff(VC)tests.The OMR test measures the mouse’s tracking reflex in response to moving sinusoidal gratings.The VC test,on the other hand,evaluates exploratory behaviour,by simulating a cliff to observe the animal’s sense of depth perception.After the behavioural evaluation,surviving retinal ganglion cells were counted.Results:The high intensity pONC resulted in a total loss of visual acuity as measured by the OMR test,with no improvement in the following 4 weeks.However,the light intensity pONC showed the same initial loss,but recovery was observed as of day 3,and results in 40-60%recovery after 4 weeks.With the VC test,mice with intact vision will avoid the deep end,opting to spend more time in the shallow end.However,after both high and low intensity pONCs,this preference is no longer observed.Both groups show a return to the shallow end preference at day 14,though the low intensity pONC group showed a stronger preference similar to baseline performance.The percentage of surviving retinal ganglion cells was higher with the low intensity(68%)than with the high intensity(17%)pONC.Conclusions:There is evidence of visual recovery at the behavioural level following a pONC,though very little recovery was observed following a high intensity pONC,and only with the VC test.Therefore,a certain amount of residual retinal input may be required for recovery at the behavioural level.

Establishing a cat model of acute optic nerve injury

BACKGROUND： In order to investigate the progress in optic nerve injury and the following regeneration and repair, many kinds of animal models of optic nerve injury have been established, such as models of acute and chronic ocular hypertension, compression, amputating wound, ischemia reperfusion or hypoxia, intravitreal injection of excitatory amino acids, etc. However, most of these models are established by squeezing intraorbital optic nerve, and suitable for ophthalmology, and there are fewer models suitable for the acute cranial contusion in neurosurgery. OBJECTIVE： To observe the changes of optic nerve after acute injury, and the characteristics of methods for establishing model of acute optic nerve injury in cats. DESIGN： A complete randomized grouping and controlled animal trial. SETTING： Department of Neurosurgery, General Hospital of Ji＇nan Military Area Command of Chinese PLA. MATERIALS： Twenty-eight healthy adult cats, common degree, either sex, weighing 2.0-3.5 kg, were provided by the animal experimental center of Fudan University. The cats were randomly divided into control group （n =3） and model group （n =25）, and 5 cats in the model group were observed at 6 hours and 1, 3, 7 and 14 days after injury respectively. JX-2000 biological signal processing system （Department of Physiology, Second Military Medical University of Chinese PLA, Shanghai）; Inverted phase contrast microscope （Olympus）; Axioplan 2 imaging microgram analytical system （Labsystems）. METHODS： The experiments were carried out in the Department of Neurosurgery, General Hospital of Jinan Military Area Command of Chinese PLA from June 2004 to June 2005. The cats in the model groups were made into models of acute optic nerve injury： The cats were anesthetized, then the limbs were fixed in a lateral recumbent position. Pterion approach in human was imitated, the operative incision was made along the line between lateral canthus and tragus, and it could be seen deep along the skull base that white optic nerve （about 3 mm） went through optic foramen and entered into brain tissue. It was squeezed with noninvasive vascular clip for 20 seconds, then the clip was removed, and then the skull was closed after it was examined to be no bleeding. The size of bilateral pupils, direct and indirect light reflexes were observed postoperatively. Successfully established models were judged by larger operated pupil than controlateral one, disappearance of direct light reflex and the existence of indirect light reflex. No model establishment was performed in the control group. Each cat was tested with flash visual evoked potential （F-VEP） to observe the electrophysiological changes before and after experiment. All the cats in the control group and model groups were killed under anesthesia before model establishment and at 6 hours, 1, 3, 7 and 14 days after model establishment respectively, and the pathological changes of the optic nerve after injury were observed under electron microscope and light microscope. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES： VEP and the ultrastructural changes of optic nerve after acute optic nerve injury in both groups. RESULTS： All the 28 cats were involved in the analysis of results. ① VEP results： The VEP latencies were obviously different between the control group and model group at each time point （P 〈 0.05）, whereas there were no obvious differences among different time points in the model group （P 〉 0.05）. The VEP amplitudes were obviously different between the control group and model group at each time point （P 〈 0.05）, whereas there were no obvious differences among different time points in the model group （P 〉 0.05）. ② Ultrastructural changes of the optic nerve： Under electron microscope, normal optic nerve myelin sheath had complete structure, tramal plates were clear and arranged tightly, axolemma was complete, whereas the structures of endoneurium, myelin sheath, tramal plates, axolemma and axon were in disorders after optic nerve injury. CONCLUSION： Models of acute optic nerve injury established by squeezing intracranial optic nerve with noninvasive vascular clip can be applied in studying intracranial acute optic nerve injury.

Selective deletion of zinc transporter 3 in amacrine cells promotes retinal ganglion cell survival and optic nerve regeneration after injury

Vision depends on accurate signal conduction from the retina to the brain through the optic nerve,an important part of the central nervous system that consists of bundles of axons originating from retinal ganglion cells.The mammalian optic nerve,an important part of the central nervous system,cannot regenerate once it is injured,leading to permanent vision loss.To date,there is no clinical treatment that can regenerate the optic nerve and restore vision.Our previous study found that the mobile zinc(Zn^(2+))level increased rapidly after optic nerve injury in the retina,specifically in the vesicles of the inner plexiform layer.Furthermore,chelating Zn^(2+)significantly promoted axonal regeneration with a long-term effect.In this study,we conditionally knocked out zinc transporter 3(ZnT3)in amacrine cells or retinal ganglion cells to construct two transgenic mouse lines(VGAT^(Cre)ZnT3^(fl/fl)and VGLUT2^(Cre)ZnT3^(fl/fl),respectively).We obtained direct evidence that the rapidly increased mobile Zn^(2+)in response to injury was from amacrine cells.We also found that selective deletion of ZnT3 in amacrine cells promoted retinal ganglion cell survival and axonal regeneration after optic nerve crush injury,improved retinal ganglion cell function,and promoted vision recovery.Sequencing analysis of reginal ganglion cells revealed that inhibiting the release of presynaptic Zn^(2+)affected the transcription of key genes related to the survival of retinal ganglion cells in postsynaptic neurons,regulated the synaptic connection between amacrine cells and retinal ganglion cells,and affected the fate of retinal ganglion cells.These results suggest that amacrine cells release Zn^(2+)to trigger transcriptomic changes related to neuronal growth and survival in reginal ganglion cells,thereby influencing the synaptic plasticity of retinal networks.These results make the theory of zinc-dependent retinal ganglion cell death more accurate and complete and provide new insights into the complex interactions between retinal cell networks.

Neurolin expression in the optic nerve and immunoreactivity of Pax6-positive niches in the brain of rainbow trout(Oncorhynchus mykiss) after unilateral eye injury

In contrast to astrocytes in mammals, fish astrocytes promote axon regeneration after brain injury and actively participate in the regeneration process. Neurolin, a regeneration-associated, Zn8-1abeled protein, is involved in the repair of damaged optic nerve in goldfish. At 1 week after unilateral eye injury, the ex- pression of neurolin in the optic nerve and chiasm, and the expression of Pax6 that influences nervous system development in various brain regions in the rainbow trout （Oncorhynchus mykiss） were detected. Immunohistochemical staining revealed that the number of Zn8~ cells in the optic nerve head and intraor- bital segment was obviously increased, and the increase in Zn8~ cells was also observed in the proximal and distal parts of injured optic nerve. This suggests that Zn8＊ astrocytes participate in optic nerve regeneration. ELISA results revealed that Pax6 protein increased obviously at 1 week post-injury. Immunohistochemi- cal staining revealed the appearance of Pax6＋ neurogenic niches and a larger number of neural precursor cells, which are mainly from Pax6＋ radial glia cells, in the nuclei of the diencephalon and optic tectum of rainbow trout （Oncorhynchus mykiss）. Taken together, unilateral eye injury can cause optic nerve reaction, and the formation of neurogenic niches is likely a compensation phenomenon during the repair process of optic nerve injury in rainbow trout （Oncorhynchus mykiss）.

Establishing a cat model of chronic optic nerve compression injury

BACKGROUND： An animal model of chronic optic nerve injury is necessary to further understand the pathological mechanisms involved. OBJECTIVE： To establish a stabilized, chronic, optic nerve crush model, which is similar to the clinical situation to explore histopathological and optic electrophysiological changes involved in this injury. DESIGN, TIME AND SETTING： A randomized and controlled animal trial was performed at Shanghai Institute of Neurosurgery from May to October 2004, MATERIALS： A BAL3XRAY undetachable balloon and Magic-BD catheter were provided by BLAT, France; JX-2000 biological signal processing system by Second Military Medical University of Chinese PLA, China; inverted phase contrast microscopy by Olympus, Japan. METHODS： A total of twenty normal adult cats were randomly assigned to control （n = 5） and model （n = 15） groups, according to different doses of contrast agent injected through balloons as follows： 0.2 mL injection, 0.25 mL injection, and 0.35 mL injection, with each group containing 5 animals. Imitating the clinical pterion approach, the optic nerves were exposed using micro-surgical methods. An engorged undetachable balloon was implanted beneath the nerve and connected to a catheter. Balloon size was controlled with a contrast agent injection （0.1 mL/10 min） to form an occupying lesion model similar to sellar tumors. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES： The visually evoked potential examination was used to study optical electrophysiology changes in pre-post chronic optical nerve injury. Ultrastructural pathological changes to the optic nerve were analyzed by electron microscopy. RESULTS： During the early period （day 11 after modeling）, visually evoked potential demonstrated no significant changes. In the late period （day 51 after modeling）, recorded VEP demonstrated that P1 wave latency was prolonged and P1 wave amplitude was obviously reduced. Following injury, the endoneurium, myelin sheath, lamella, axolemma, and axon appeared disordered. CONCLUSION： Results demonstrated that the chronic, intracranial, optical nerve crush model was stable and could simulate optic nerve lesions induced by sellar tumors. Under the condition of chronic optical nerve crush, visually evoked potentials were aggravated.

Neuroprotective effect of recombinant human erythropoietin on optic nerve injury in rats

Background Optic nerve injury, caused by retinal and optic nerve diseases, can eventually result in vision loss. To date, few effective treatments have been discovered to restore visual function. Previous studies showed that recombinant human erythropoietin （rhEPO） has a neuroprotective effect on the central nervous system, particularly in nerve injury. In this study, we investigated the effects of rhEPO on axonal regeneration and functional restoration following optic nerve injury. This was done by measuring the expression of growth associated protein 43 （GAP-43）, a marker for neuronal regeneration, on the retina and flash-visual evoked potential （F-VEP）. Methods Adult Wistar rats were randomly assigned to rhEPO and control （saline） groups. Optic nerve crush injury models were established and rhEPO or saline were immediately injected into the vitreous cavity. The expression of GAP-43 was detected by immunohistochemistry and the F-VEP was measured pre-injury, immediately after injury, 1 week and 2 weeks post-injury. Results No detectable staining for GAP-43 was observed in normal retina. In the control group, the level of GAP-43 expression was higher at 1 week post-injury, but decreased at 2 weeks. In the rhEPO group, the level of GAP-43 expression was notably higher at both 1 week and 2 weeks. At each time point post-injury, the expression of GAP-43 in rhEPO group was significantly higher than the control group （P 〈0.05）. Obvious changes in F-VEP examination were detected immediately after optic nerve injury, including significantly prolonged latency and decreased amplitude of the P1 wave. In the control group, the changes were still obvious at 1 week. The latency was decreased and the amplitude had slightly recovered to 28.23% of the normal value at 2 weeks. In rhEPO group, there was significantly more recovery than the control group at 1 week and 2 weeks post-injury （P 〈0.05）. The latency most close to the normal level and the amplitude had recovered to 65.51% of the normal value at 2 weeks. Conclusions rhEPO can prolong the expression of GAP-43 and increase its intensity after optic nerve injury, thereby promoting neural repair and axonal regeneration. Under the protection of rhEPO, the conduction velocity of the optic nerve recovered significantly. Therefore, rhEPO has neuroprotective effects on the optic nerve and promotes functional restoration of the optic nerve. Chin Med J 2009;122（17）：2008-2012

Human umbilical cord blood-derived stem cells and brain-derived neurotrophic factor protect injured optic nerve:viscoelasticity characterization

The optic nerve is a viscoelastic solid-like biomaterial.Its normal stress relaxation and creep properties enable the nerve to resist constant strain and protect it from injury.We hypothesized that stress relaxation and creep properties of the optic nerve change after injury.Moreover,human brain-derived neurotrophic factor or umbilical cord blood-derived stem cells may restore these changes to normal.To validate this hypothesis,a rabbit model of optic nerve injury was established using a clamp approach.At 7 days after injury,the vitreous body received a one-time injection of 50 μg human brain-derived neurotrophic factor or 1 × 106 human umbilical cord blood-derived stem cells.At 30 days after injury,stress relaxation and creep properties of the optic nerve that received treatment had recovered greatly,with pathological changes in the injured optic nerve also noticeably improved.These results suggest that human brain-derived neurotrophic factor or umbilical cord blood-derived stem cell intervention promotes viscoelasticity recovery of injured optic nerves,and thereby contributes to nerve recovery.

Delayed treatment of secondary degeneration following acute optic nerve transection using a combination of ion channel inhibitors

Studies have shown that a combined application of several ion channel inhibitors immediately after central nervous system injury can inhibit secondary degeneration. However, for clinical use, it is necessary to determine how long after injury the combined treatment of several ion channel inhibitors can be delayed and efficacy maintained. In this study, we delivered Ca^2＋ entry-inhibiting P2X7 receptor antagonist oxidized-ATP and AMPA receptor antagonist YM872 to the optic nerve injury site via an iPRECIO-@ pump immediately, 6 hours, 24 hours and 7 days after partial optic nerve transection surgery. In addition, all of the ion channel inhibitor treated rats were administered with calcium channel antagonist lomerizine hydrochloride. It is important to note that as a result of implantation of the particular pumps required for programmable delivery of therapeutics directly to the injury site, seromas occurred in a significant proportion of animals, indicating infection around the pumps in these animals. Improvements in visual function were observed only when treatment was delayed by 6 hours; phosphorylated Tau was reduced when treatment was delayed by 24 hours or 7 days. Improvements in structure of node/paranode of Ranvier and reductions in oxidative stress indicators were also only observed when treatment was delayed for 6 hours, 24 hours, or 7 days. Benefits of ion channel inhibitors were only observed with time-delayed treatment, suggesting that delayed therapy of Ca^2＋ ion channel inhibitors produces better neuroprotective effects on secondary degeneration, at least in the presence of seromas.

Efficacy of nerve growth factor on the treatment of optic nerve contusion Evaluation with visual evoked potential

BACKGROUND： Pattern- visual evoked potential （PVEP） can reflect the functional status of retinal ganglial cells （RGC） and visual cortex, and is an objective examination for visual pathway function. It is a unique method for objectively examining the optic nerve function of optic ganglion cells. OBJECTIVE： To observe the effects of nerve growth factor （NGF） on PVEF in the treatment of optic nerve contusion, evaluate the clinical efficacy of NGF, and make an efficacy comparison with vitamin B12. DESIGN： A randomly grouping, controlled observation. SETTING： Department of Ophthalmology, Tangshan Gongren Hospital Affiliated to Hebei Medical University. PARTICIPANTS： Forty patients with optic nerve contusion caused by eye trauma, who received the treatment in the Tangshan Worker Hospital Affiliated to Hebei Medical University between January 2006 and June 2007, were recruited in this study. The involved 40 patients, including 34 males and 6 females, were aged 14-59 years. They were confirmed to have optic nerve contusion by ophthalmologic consultation combined with history of disease and orbital CT examination. Informed consents of treatments and detected items were obtained from all the patients. The patients were randomly divided into 2 groups with 20 in each： NGF group and vitamin B12 group. METHODS： Conservative treatment was used in the two groups. In addition, patients in the NGF group were intramuscularly injected with NGF solution 18 μg /time, once a day. Those in the vitamin B12 group were injected by the same method with common vitamin B12 of 500 μg combined with vitamin B1 of 100 mg, once a day. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES： PVEP examination was conducted in all the patients before, one and two weeks after treatment, and latency and amplitude at P100 were detected. RESULTS： Forty patients with optic nerve contusion participated in the final analysis. Before treatment, significant differences in the latency and amplitude at P100 were not found in patients between two groups （P 〉 0.05）. For each patient in the NGF group, the latency of PVEP at P100 was significantly shortened, and the amplitude was significantly increased one and two weeks after treatment as compared with vitamin B12 group（t =2.06-2.34, P 〈 0.05）. CONCLUSION： NGF treatment can obviously improve the visual function of patients with optic nerve contusion. The curative effect of NGF is superior to vitamin B12.

Neuronal apoptosis and neurofilament protein expression in the lateral geniculate body of cats following acute optic nerve injuries

The visual pathway have 6 parts, involving optic nerve, optic chiasm, optic tract, lateral geniculate body, optic radiation and cortical striatum area. Corresponding changes may be found in these 6 parts following optic nerve injury. At present, studies mainly focus on optic nerve and retina, but studies on lateral geniculate body are few. OBJECTIVE： To prepare models of acute optic nerve injury for observing the changes of neurons in lateral geniculate body, expression of neurofilament protein at different time after injury and cell apoptosis under the optical microscope, and for investigating the changes of neurons in lateral geniculate body following acute optic nerve injury. DESIGN： Completely randomized grouping design, controlled animal experiment. SETTING： Department of Neurosurgery, General Hospital of Ji＇nan Military Area Command of Chinese PLA. MATERIALS： Twenty-eight adult healthy cats of either gender and common grade, weighing from 2.0 to 3.5 kg, were provided by the Animal Experimental Center of Fudan University. The involved cats were divided into 2 groups according to table of random digit： normal control group （n=3） and model group （n=25）. Injury 6 hours, l, 3, 7 and 14 days five time points were set in model group for later observation, 5 cats at each time point. TUNEL kit （Bohringer-Mannheim company ）and NF200＆ Mr 68 000 mouse monoclonal antibody （NeoMarkers Company） were used in this experiment. METHODS： This experiment was carded out in the Department of Neurosurgery, General Hospital of Ji＇nan Military Area Command of Chinese PLA between June 2004 and June 2005.① The cats of model group were developed into cat models of acute intracranial optic nerve injury as follows： The anesthetized cats were placed in lateral position. By imitating operation to human, pterion approach was used. An incision was made at the joint line between outer canthus and tragus, and deepened along cranial base until white optic nerve via optic nerve pore and further to brain tissue. Optic nerve about 3 mm was liberated and occluded by noninvasive vascular clamp for 20 s. After removal of noninvasive vascular clamp, the area compressed by optic nerve was hollowed and narrowed, but non-fractured. Skull was closed when haemorrhage was not found. Bilateral pupillary size, direct and indirect light reflect were observed. Operative side pupil was enlarged as compared with opposite side, direct light reflect disappeared and indirect light reflect existed, which indicated that the models were successful. Animals of control group were not modeled .② The animals in the control group and model group were sacrificed before and 6 hours, 1, 3, 7 and 14 days after modeling respectively. Lateral geniculate body sample was taken and performed haematoxylin ＆ eosin staining. Immunohistochemical staining showed lateral geniculate body neurofilament protein expression, and a comparison of immunohistochemial staining results was made between experimental group and control group. Terminal deoxynucleo-tidyl transferase （TdT）-mediated dUTP-biotin nick end labeling （TUNEL） was used to label apoptotic cells in lateral geniculate body. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES： Neuronal morphological change, neurofilament protein expression and cell apoptosis in lateral geniculate body following acute optic nerve injury. RESULTS： Twenty-eight involved cats entered the final analysis. ① Histological observation results： In the control group, cell processes were obviously found, which were few or shortening in the model group. ② Neuronal neurofilament protein expression： Cells in lateral geniculate body in the control group and at 6 hours after injury presented clear strip-shaped staining, and those at 7 and 14 days presented irregular distribution without layers and obviously decreasing staining intensity. The positive rate of neurofilament protein in lateral geniculate body in control group and 6 hours, l, 3, 7 and 14 days after injury was （ 10.22±0.42） %, （10.03±0.24） %, （9.94±0.14） %, （9.98±0.22） %, （8.18±0.34） % and （6.37±0.18）%, respectively. Positive rate of neurofilament protein in control group, at 6 hours, 1 or 3 days after injury was significantly different from that at 7 days after injury （P 〈 0.05）; Positive rate of neurofilament protein in control group, at 6 hours, 1, 3 or 7 days after injury was significantly different from that at 14 days after injury （P 〈 0.05）. It indicated that neuronal injury in lateral geniculate body was not obvious within short term after optic nerve injury, but obvious at 7 days after injury and progressively aggravated until at 14 days after injury.③ Neuronal apoptosis： TUNEL staining showed that neuronal apoptosis in lateral geniculate body appeared at 7 days after injury, and a Lot of neuronal apoptosis in lateral geniculate body was found at 14 days after injury. It indicated that neuronal injury in lateral geniculate body was related to apoptosis. CONCLUSION： In short term after optic nerve injury （within 7 days）, nerve injury of lateral geniculate body is not obvious, then, it will aggravate with the elongation of injury time. The occurrence of neuronal iniury of lateral geniculate body is related to the apoptosis of nerve cells.

Correlation between photoreceptor injury-regeneration and behavior in a zebrafish model

Direct exposure to intensive visible light can lead to solar retinopathy, including macular injury. The signs and symptoms include central scotoma, metamorphopsia, and decreased vision. However, there have been few studies examining retinal injury due to intensive light stimulation at the cellular level. Neural network arrangements and gene expression patterns in zebrafish photoreceptors are similar to those observed in humans, and photoreceptor injury in zebrafish can induce stem cell-based cellular regeneration. Therefore, the zebrafish retina is considered a useful model for studying photoreceptor injury in humans. In the current study, the central retinal photoreceptors of zebrafish were selectively ablated by stimulation with high-intensity light. Retinal injury, cell proliferation and regeneration of cones and rods were assessed at 1, 3 and 7 days post lesion with immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization. Additionally, a light/dark box test was used to assess zebrafish behavior. The results revealed that photoreceptors were regenerated by 7 days after the light-induced injury. However, the regenerated cells showed a disrupted arrangement at the lesion site. During the injury-regeneration process, the zebrafish exhibited reduced locomotor capacity, weakened phototaxis and increased movement angular velocity. These behaviors matched the morphological changes of retinal injury and regeneration in a number of ways. This study demonstrates that the zebrafish retina has a robust capacity for regeneration. Visual impairment and stress responses following high-intensity light stimulation appear to contribute to the alteration of behaviors.

Therapeutic effect of naloxone on radiation optic neurapathy Based on rabbit models

BACKGROUND： Radiation therapy is widely used to treat tumor of brain; however, irradiation of radiation into eye tissues may easily cause ischemia and hypoxia in retina and optic nerve tissue so as to induce radiation optic neurapathy. Noloxone is a specific antagonist of opiate receptor, and it can change injured effect of f3 -endorphin. OBJECTIVE： To observe the axoplasmic transport of optic nerve at various phases after radiation injury so as to investigate the mechanism and regularity of optic nerve injury; meanwhile, to verify the therapeutic effects of naloxone on radiation optic neurapathy. DESIGN： Randomized controlled animal study. SETTINGS： Medical College of Qingdao University, Changzhi Medical College. MATERIALS： A total of 40 healthy adult New Zealand rabbits, weighing 2 - 2.5 kg, of either gender, were checked by using slit lamp and ophthalmoscop before radiation in order to exclude eye diseases. FCC-7000 vertical kilocurie ^60Co therapeutic machine was made in Yantai, China; in addition, naloxone was provided by Beijing Sihuan Pharmaceutical Factory. METHODS： The experiment was carried out in the Animal Experimental Laboratory, Medical College of Qingdao University from January 2005 to December 2006. The experimental rabbits were randomly divided into radiation group （n =16）, treatment group （n =16）, blank control group （n=4） and injured control group （n=4）. Except blank control group, rabbits in other three groups were irradiated in as the center of optic chiasma including the area of optic nerve by using ^60Co therapeutic machine. Radioactive source was 85 cm away from head, and the size of operative field was 5 cm × 5 cm. The radiation was performed once a day with the dosage of 3 Gy for 8 days in total. The total dosage was 24 Gy. When radioactive dosage reached 24 Gy, 2 mg/kg naloxone was dropped into ear vein of rabbits in the treatment group once a day for 10 days in total. Rabbits in the injured control group were only irradiated but not given any drugs. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES： At 1, 10, 30 and 60 days after 24-Gy radiation, anterogradely labeled horseradish peroxidase （HRP） was used to measure optical density mean （OPTDM） in the radiation group and the treatment group; while, OPTDM was directly measured in the blank control group, and OPTDM was directly measured after radiation in the injured control group. RESULTS： All 40 experimental rabbits were involved in the final analysis. There were significant differences in OPTDM at various phases between radiation group and blank control group （P 〈 0.05）; in addition, there was significant difference in OPTDM in the treatment group at 1, 10, 30 and 60 days after 24-Gy radiation （P 〈 0.05）; otherwise, at 30 and 60 days after 24-Gy radiation, there was significant difference in OPTDM between radiation group and treatment group （P 〈 0.05）. CONCLUSION： Naloxone may improve optic nerve axoplasmic transport disorder induced by radiation so as to protect optic nerve.

Siponimod exerts neuroprotective effects on the retina and higher visual pathway through neuronal S1PR1 in experimental glaucoma

Sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor(S1PR)signaling regulates diverse pathophysiological processes in the central nervous system.The role of S1PR signaling in neurodegenerative conditions is still largely unidentified.Siponimod is a specific modulator of S1P1 and S1P5 receptors,an immunosuppressant drug for managing secondary progressive multiple sclerosis.We investigated its neuroprotective properties in vivo on the retina and the brain in an optic nerve injury model induced by a chronic increase in intraocular pressure or acute N-methyl-D-aspartate excitotoxicity.Neuronal-specific deletion of sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor(S1PR1)was carried out by expressing AAV-PHP.eB-Cre recombinase under Syn1 promoter in S1PR1mice to define the role of S1PR1 in neurons.Inner retinal electrophysiological responses,along with histological and immunofluorescence analysis of the retina and optic nerve tissues,indicated significant neuroprotective effects of siponimod when administered orally via diet in chronic and acute optic nerve injury models.Further,siponimod treatment showed significant protection against trans-neuronal degenerative changes in the higher visual center of the brain induced by optic nerve injury.Siponimod treatment also reduced microglial activation and reactive gliosis along the visual pathway.Our results showed that siponimod markedly upregulated neuroprotective Akt and Erk1/2 activation in the retina and the brain.Neuronal-specific deletion of S1PR1 enhanced retinal and dorsolateral geniculate nucleus degenerative changes in a chronic optic nerve injury condition and attenuated protective effects of siponimod.In summary,our data demonstrated that S1PR1signaling plays a vital role in the retinal ganglion cell and dorsolateral geniculate nucleus neuronal survival in experimental glaucoma,and siponimod exerts direct neuroprotective effects through S1PR1 in neurons in the central nervous system independent of its peripheral immuno-modulatory effects.Our findings suggest that neuronal S1PR1 is a neuroprotective therapeutic target and its modulation by siponimod has positive implications in glaucoma conditions.

Minocycline protects retinal ganglion cells after optic nerve crush injury in mice by delaying autophagy and upregulating nuclear factor-κB2

Background Currently,no medicine is available that can prevent or treat neural damage associated with optic nerve injury.Minocycline is recently reported to have a neuroprotective function.The aims of this study were to exarmine the neuroprotective effect of minocycline on retinal ganglion cells （RGCs） and determine its underlying mechanisms,using a mouse model of optic nerve crush （ONC）.Methods ONC was performed in the left eye of adult male mice,and the mice were randomly divided into minocycline-treated group and saline-treated control group.The mice without receiving ONC injury were used as positive controls.RGC densities were assessed in retinal whole mounts with immunofluorescence labeling of βⅢ-tubulin.Transmission electron microscopy was used to detect RGC morphologies,and Western blotting and real-time PCR were applied to investigate the expression of autophagy markers LC3-Ⅰ,LC3-Ⅱ,and transcriptional factors nuclear factor-κB1 （NF-κB1）,NF-κB2.Results In the early stage after ONC （at Days 4 and 7）,the density of RGCs in the minocycline-treated group was higher than that of the saline-treated group.Electron micrographs showed that minocycline prevented nuclei and mitochondria injuries at Day 4.Western blotting analysis demonstrated that the conversion of LC3-Ⅰ to LC3-Ⅱ was reduced in the minocycline-treated group at Days 4 and 7,which meant autophagy process was inhibited by minocycline.In addition,the gene expression of NF-κB2 was upregulated by minocycline at Day 4.Conclusion The neuroprotective effect of minocycline is generated in the early stage after ONC in mice,partly through delaying autophagy process and regulating NF-κB2 pathway.

Gender difference in the neuroprotective effect of rat bone marrow mesenchymal cells against hypoxiainduced apoptosis of retinal ganglion cells

Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells can reduce retinal ganglion cell death and effectively prevent vision loss. Previously, we found that during differentiation, female rhesus monkey bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells acquire a higher neurogenic potential compared with male rhesus monkey bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells. This suggests that female bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells have a stronger neuroprotective effect than male bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells. Here, we first isolated and cultured bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells from female and male rats by density gradient centrifugation. Retinal tissue from newborn rats was prepared by enzymatic digestion to obtain primary retinal ganglion cells. Using the transwell system, retinal ganglion cells were co-cultured with bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells under hypoxia. Cell apoptosis was detected by flow cytometry and caspase-3 activity assay. We found a marked increase in apoptotic rate and caspase-3 activity of retinal ganglion cells after 24 hours of hypoxia compared with normoxia. Moreover, apoptotic rate and caspase-3 activity of retinal ganglion cells significantly decreased with both female and male bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell co-culture under hypoxia compared with culture alone, with more significant effects from female bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells. Our results indicate that bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells exert a neuroprotective effect against hypoxia-induced apoptosis of retinal ganglion cells, and also that female cells have greater neuroprotective ability compared with male cells.