Constructing high-toughness polyimide binder with robust polarity and ion-conductive mechanisms ensuring long-term operational stability of silicon-based anodes

Silicon-based materials have demonstrated remarkable potential in high-energy-density batteries owing to their high theoretical capacity.However,the significant volume expansion of silicon seriously hinders its utilization as a lithium-ion anode.Herein,a functionalized high-toughness polyimide(PDMI) is synthesized by copolymerizing the 4,4'-Oxydiphthalic anhydride(ODPA) with 4,4'-oxydianiline(ODA),2,3-diaminobenzoic acid(DABA),and 1,3-bis(3-aminopropyl)-tetramethyl disiloxane(DMS).The combination of rigid benzene rings and flexible oxygen groups(-O-) in the PDMI molecular chain via a rigidness/softness coupling mechanism contributes to high toughness.The plentiful polar carboxyl(-COOH) groups establish robust bonding strength.Rapid ionic transport is achieved by incorporating the flexible siloxane segment(Si-O-Si),which imparts high molecular chain motility and augments free volume holes to facilitate lithium-ion transport(9.8 × 10^(-10) cm^(2) s^(-1) vs.16 × 10^(-10) cm^(2) s~(-1)).As expected,the SiO_x@PDMI-1.5 electrode delivers brilliant long-term cycle performance with a remarkable capacity retention of 85% over 500 cycles at 1.3 A g^(-1).The well-designed functionalized polyimide also significantly enhances the electrochemical properties of Si nanoparticles electrode.Meanwhile,the assembled SiO_x@PDMI-1.5/NCM811 full cell delivers a high retention of 80% after 100 cycles.The perspective of the binder design strategy based on polyimide modification delivers a novel path toward high-capacity electrodes for high-energy-density batteries.

Synergistically constructed lamination-like network of redox-active polyimide and MXene via π-π interactions for aqueous NH_(4)^(+) storage

As a nonmetallic charge carrier,ammonium ion(NH_(4)^(+))has garnered significant attention in the construction of aqueous batteries due to its advantages of low molar mass,small hydration size and rapid diffusion in aqueous solutions.Polymers are a kind of potential electro-active materials for aqueous NH_(4)^(+)storage.However,traditional polymer electrodes are typically created by covering the bulky collectors with excessive additives,which could lead to low volume capacity and unsatisfactory stability.Herein,a nanoparticle-like polyimide(PI)was synthesized and then combined with MXene nanosheets to synergistically construct an additive-free and self-standing PI@MXene composite electrode.Significantly,the redox-active PI nanoparticles are enclosed between conductive MXene flakes to create a 3D lamination-like network that promotes electron transmission,while theπ-πinteractions existing between PI and MXene contribute to the enhanced structural integrity and stability within the composite electrode.As such,it delivers superior aqueous NH_(4)^(+)storage behaviors in terms of a notable specific capacity of 110.7 mA·h·cm^(–3) and a long lifespan with only 0.0064%drop each cycle.Furthermore,in-situ Raman and UV–Vis examinations provide evidence of reversible and stable redox mechanism of the PI@MXene composite electrode during NH_(4)^(+)uptake/removal,highlighting its significance in the area of electrochemical energy storage.

Phase field model for electric-thermal coupled discharge breakdown of polyimide nanocomposites under high frequency electrical stress

In contrast to conventional transformers, power electronic transformers, as an integral component of new energy power system, are often subjected to high-frequency and transient electrical stresses, leading to heightened concerns regarding insulation failures. Meanwhile, the underlying mechanism behind discharge breakdown failure and nanofiller enhancement under high-frequency electrical stress remains unclear. An electric-thermal coupled discharge breakdown phase field model was constructed to study the evolution of the breakdown path in polyimide nanocomposite insulation subjected to high-frequency stress. The investigation focused on analyzing the effect of various factors, including frequency, temperature, and nanofiller shape, on the breakdown path of Polyimide(PI) composites. Additionally, it elucidated the enhancement mechanism of nano-modified composite insulation at the mesoscopic scale. The results indicated that with increasing frequency and temperature, the discharge breakdown path demonstrates accelerated development, accompanied by a gradual dominance of Joule heat energy. This enhancement is attributed to the dispersed electric field distribution and the hindering effect of the nanosheets. The research findings offer a theoretical foundation and methodological framework to inform the optimal design and performance management of new insulating materials utilized in high-frequency power equipment.

Synthesis and applications of low dielectric polyimide

With the advent of the 5 G era,advanced packaging applications such as wafer-level fan-out packaging have emerged thanks to efforts to reduce signal loss and increase signal transmission rates.As one of the key materials employed in telecommunication devices,the interlayer dielectric material directly affects signal transmission and device reliability.Among them,polyimide(PI)has become an important interlayer dielectric material because of its excellent comprehensive properties.However,in order to meet the needs high-frequency and high-speed circuits for 5 G networks,it will be necessary to further reduce the dielectric constant and dielectric loss of PI.PI is widely used as a flexible dielectric material due to its excellent electrical insulation properties(dielectric constant≈3.0-4.0,dielectric loss≈0.02),mechanical properties,and thermal resistance.However,further reduction in the dielectric constant will be needed in order for PI-based materials to better meet the current high integration development needs of the microelectronics industry.This article starts from strategies to prepare low dielectric PI that have been developed in the last decade,based on a more systematic and inductive analysis,and prospects the development potential of low dielectric PI.

3D Printed Integrated Gradient-Conductive MXene/CNT/Polyimide Aerogel Frames for Electromagnetic Interference Shielding with Ultra-Low Reflection

Construction of advanced electromagnetic interference(EMI)shielding materials with miniaturized,programmable structure and low reflection are promising but challenging.Herein,an integrated transition-metal carbides/carbon nanotube/polyimide(gradient-conductive MXene/CNT/PI,GCMCP)aerogel frame with hierarchical porous structure and gradient-conductivity has been constructed to achieve EMI shielding with ultra-low reflection.The gradient-conductive structures are obtained by continuous 3D printing of MXene/CNT/poly(amic acid)inks with different CNT contents,where the slightly conductive top layer serves as EM absorption layer and the highly conductive bottom layer as reflection layer.In addition,the hierarchical porous structure could extend the EM dissipation path and dissipate EM by multiple reflections.Consequently,the GCMCP aerogel frames exhibit an excellent average EMI shielding efficiency(68.2 dB)and low reflection(R=0.23).Furthermore,the GCMCP aerogel frames with miniaturized and programmable structures can be used as EMI shielding gaskets and effectively block wireless power transmission,which shows a prosperous application prospect in defense industry and aerospace.

Polyimides as Promising Materials for Lithium-Ion Batteries:A Review

Lithium-ion batteries(LIBs)have helped revolutionize the modern world and are now advancing the alternative energy field.Several technical challenges are associated with LIBs,such as increasing their energy density,improving their safety,and prolonging their lifespan.Pressed by these issues,researchers are striving to find effective solutions and new materials for next-generation LIBs.Polymers play a more and more important role in satisfying the ever-increasing requirements for LIBs.Polyimides(PIs),a special functional polymer,possess unparalleled advantages,such as excellent mechanical strength,extremely high thermal stability,and excellent chemical inertness;they are a promising material for LIBs.Herein,we discuss the current applications of PIs in LIBs,including coatings,separators,binders,solid-state polymer electrolytes,and active storage materials,to improve high-voltage performance,safety,cyclability,flexibility,and sustainability.Existing technical challenges are described,and strategies for solving current issues are proposed.Finally,potential directions for implementing PIs in LIBs are outlined.

Construction of all-organic low dielectric polyimide hybrids via synergistic effect between covalent organic framework and cross-linking structure

Polyimide(PI)is a promising electronic packaging material,but it remains challenging to obtain an all-organic PI hybrid film with decreased dielectric constant and loss without modifying the monomer.Herein,a series of allorganic PI hybrid films were successfully prepared by introducing the covalent organic framework(COF),which could induce the formation of the cross-linking structure in the PI matrix.Due to the synergistic effects of the COF fillers and the cross-linking structure,the PI/COF hybrid film containing 2 wt%COF exhibited the lowest dielectric constant of 2.72 and the lowest dielectric loss(tanδ)of 0.0077 at 1 MHz.It is attributed to the intrinsic low dielectric constant of COF and a large number of mesopores within the PI.Besides,the cross-linking network of PI prevents the molecular chains from stacking and improves the fraction of free volume(FFV).The molecular dynamics simulation results are well consistent with the dielectric properties data.Furthermore,the PI/COF hybrid film with 5 wt%COF showed a significant enhancement in breakdown strength,which increased to 412.8 kV/mm as compared with pure PI.In addition,the PI/COF hybrid film achieve to reduce the dielectric constant and thermal expansion coefficient(CTE).It also exhibited excellent thermal,hydrophobicity,and mechanical performance.The all-organic PI/COF hybrid films have great commercial potential as next-generation electronic packaging materials.

A Metal-free Polyimide Photocatalyst for the Oxidation of Amines to Imines

Polyimide(PI) is an organic polymer material with good stability and diverse sources that has attracted widespread attention in the field of photocatalysis. In this study, a series of PI photocatalysts were synthesized by a thermal polymerization approach using pyromellitic dianhydride(PMDA) and various diamine monomers(melamine(MA), 4,4′-oxydianiline, and melem) as the precursors as well as different heating rates. The effects of the diamine precursor and heating rate on the structure, composition, morphology, and optical properties of the as-prepared PI materials were systematically investigated by various characterization techniques. The selective photo-oxidation of benzylamine was used as a model reaction to evaluate the photocatalytic activities of the resulting PI samples for the oxidation of amines to imines. The results revealed that the PI sample prepared using MA and PMDA as the precursors and a heating rate of 7 ℃/min(MA-PI-7) exhibited the best catalytic performance, with 98% benzylamine conversion and 98% selectivity for N-benzylidene benzylamine after 4 h of irradiation. Several benzylamine derivatives and heterocyclic amines also underwent the photo-oxidation reaction over the MA-PI-7 catalyst to afford the corresponding imines with good activity. In addition, MA-PI-7 exhibited good stability over four successive photocatalytic cycles.

Novel polyimide binder for achieving high-rate capability and long-term cycling stability of LiNi_(0.8)Co_(0.1)Mn_(0.1)O_(2) cathode via constructing polar and micro-branched crosslinking network structure

LiNi_(0.8)Co_(0.1)Mn_(0.1)O_(2)(NCM811)material,as the promising cathode candidate for next-generation highenergy lithium-ion batteries,has gained considerable attention for extremely high theoretical capacity and low cost.Nevertheless,the intrinsic drawbacks of NCM811 such as unstable structure and inevitable interface side reaction result in severe capacity decay and thermal runaway.Herein,a novel polyimide(denoted as PI-Om DT)constructed with the highly polar and micro-branched crosslinking network is reported as a binder material for NCM811 cathode.The micro-branched crosslinking network is achieved by using 1,3,5-Tris(4-aminophenoxy)benzene(TAPOB)as a crosslinker via condensation reaction,which endows excellent mechanical properties and large free volume.Meanwhile,the massive polar carboxyl(-COOH)groups provide strong adhesion sites to active NCM811 particles.These functions of PIOm DT binder collaboratively benefit to forming the mechanically robust and homogeneous coating layer with rapid Li+diffusion on the surface of NCM811,significantly stabilizing the cathode structure,suppressing the detrimental interface side reaction and guaranteeing the shorter ion-diffusion and electron-transfer paths,consequently enhancing electrochemical performance.As compared to the NCM811 with PVDF binder,the NCM811 using PI-Om DT binder delivers a superior high-rate capacity(121.07 vs.145.38 m Ah g^(-1))at 5 C rate and maintains a higher capacity retention(80.38%vs.91.6%)after100 cycles at 2.5–4.3 V.Particularly,at the high-voltage conditions up to 4.5 and 4.7 V,the NCM811 with PI-Om DT binder still maintains the remarkable capacity retention of 88.86%and 72.5%after 100 cycles,respectively,paving the way for addressing the high-voltage operating stability of the NCM811 cathode.Moreover,the full-charged NCM811 cathode with PI-Om DT binder exhibits a significantly enhanced thermal stability,improving the safety performance of batteries.This work opens a new avenue for developing high-energy NCM811 based lithium-ion batteries with long cycle-life and superior safety performance using a novel and effective binder.

Extraordinary Ultrahigh-Capacity and Long Cycle Life Lithium-Ion Batteries Enabled by Graphitic Carbon Nitride-Perylene Polyimide Composites

Graphitic carbon nitride(g-C_(3)N_(4))is widely used in organic metal-ion batteries owing to its high porosity,facile synthesis,stability,and high-rate performance.However,pristine g-C_(3)N_(4)nanosheets exhibit poor electrical conductivity,irreversible metal-ion storage capacity,and short-term cycling owing to their high concentration of graphitic-N species.Herein,a series of 3,4:9,10-perylenetetracarboxylic diimide-coupled g-C_(3)N_(4)composite anode materials,CN-PI_(x)(x=0.2,0.5,0.75,and 1),was investigated,which exhibited an unusually high surface nitrogen content(23.19-39.92 at.%)and the highest pyridinic-N,pyrrolic-N,and graphitic-N contents reported to date.The CN-PI_(1)anode delivers an unprecedented and continuously increasing ultrahigh discharging capacity of exceeding 8400 mAh g^(-1)(1.96 mWh cm^(-2))at 100 mA g^(-1)with high specific energy density(E_(sp))of~7700 Wh kg^(-1)and the volumetric energy density(E_(v))of~14956 Wh L-1 and an excellent long-term stability(414 mAh g^(-1)or 0.579 mWh cm^(-2)at 1 A g^(-1)).Furthermore,the activation of the CN-PI_(x)electrodes contributes to their superior electrochemical performance,resulting from the fact that the Li+is not only stored in the CN-PI_(x)composites but also CN-PI_(x)activated the Li^(0)adlayer on the CN-PI_(1)-Cu heterojunction as an SEI layer to avoid the direct contact of Li^(0)phase and the electrolyte.The CN-PI_(1)full cell with LiCoO_(2)as the cathode delivers a discharge capacity of~587 mAh g^(-1)at a 1 A g^(-1)after 250 cycles with a Coulombic efficiency nearly 99%.This study provides a strategy to develop N-doped g-C_(3)N_(4)-based anode materials for realizing long-lasting energy storage devices.

Recyclability and Self-Healing of Dynamic Cross-Linked Polyimide with Mechanical/Electrical Damage

Recyclability and self-healing are two most critical factors in developing sustainable polymers to deal with environmental pollution and resource waste.In this work,a dynamic cross-linked polyimide insulation film with full closed-loop recyclability is successfully prepared,which also possesses good self-healing ability after being mechanical/electrical damaged depending on the Schiff base dynamic covalent bonds.The recycled and self-healed polyimide film still maintain its good tensile strength(r t)>60 MPa with Young’s modulus(E)>4 GPa,high thermal stability with glass transition temperature(T g)>220℃,and outstanding insulation property with breakdown strength(E 0)>358 kV mm^(-1),making it a very promising low energy consumption and high temperature resistant insulation material.The strategy of using Schiff base dynamic covalent bonds for reversible repairing the structure of high T g polyimides promotes the wider application of such sustainable and recyclable material in the field of electrical power and micro-electronics.

Direct detection redox mechanisms of polyimide electrode by EPR spectroscopy

Recently,a study reported on the use of in situ electron paramagnetic resonance(EPR)spectroscopy to investigate two consecutive single-electron processes in polyimide and directly diagnose typical electrochemical reactions of carbonyl-based organic electrode in Li-ion batteries(LIBs).This research offers the important experimental clue for studying specific electron conversion routes of multi-electron transfer reactions in LIB materials[1].

SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION OF HIGHLY ORGANO-SOLUBLE POLYIMIDES BASED ON ALICYCLIC 1,8-DIMETHYL-BICYCLO[2.2.2]OCT-7- ENE-2,3,5,6-TETRACARBOXYLIC DIANHYDRIDE AND AROMATIC DIAMINES

Organo-soluble alicyclic polyimides (ALPIs) were synthesized from an alicyclic dianhydride, 1,8-dimethyl-bicyclo[2.2.2]oct-7-ene-2,3,5,6-tetracarboxylic dianhydride (DMEA) and several multialkyl-substituted 4,4'-diaminodiphenylmethane compounds, including 3,3'-dimethyl-4,4'-diaminodiphenyt methane (DMDA), 3,31,5,5'-tetramethyl-4,4'-diaminodiphenyl methane (TMDA) and 3,3',5,5'-tetraethyl-4,4'-diaminodiphenylmethane (TEDA). For comparison, the aromatic polyimides (ARPIs) were synthesized from the aromatic dianhydride, 3,3',4,4'-benzophenonetetracarboxylic dianhydride (BTDA) and the same diamines. The ALPIs exhibited better solubility and transparency, but worse thermal stabilities and mechanical properties than those of the ARPIs. And the ALPIs could be dissolved in common organic solvents, such as N-methyl-2-pyrrolidinone (NMP), N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF), N,N-dimethylacetamide (DMAc), chloroform, tetrahydrofuran, m-cresol and so on. The ALPI films had an UV-Vis cut-off at 320 nm and a transmittance of higher than 80% in the visible region. In addition, the ALPIs showed thermal decomposition temperatures (T-d) of about 450degreesC, which was nearly 100degreesC lower than that of the ARPIs.

Pd micro-nanoparticles electrodeposited on graphene/polyimide membrane for electrocatalytic oxidation of formic acid

A novel Pd electrocatalyst with flowerlike micro-nanostructures was synthesized by electrochemical deposition on a flexible graphene/polyimide（Gr/PI） composite membrane and characterized by scanning electron microscopy（SEM）,X-ray diffraction（XRD）.The Pd micro-nanoparticles were prepared on a COOH-CNTs/PI membrane as a comparative sample.The XRD and SEM investigations for Pd electrodeposition demonstrate that the particle size of Gr/PI composite membrane is smaller than that of COOH-CNTs/PI membrane,while the uniform and dense distribution of Pd micro-nanoparticles on the Gr/PI composite membrane is greater than that on the COOH-CNTs/PI membrane.The electrocatalytic properties of Pd/Gr/PI and Pd/COOH-CNTs/PI catalysts for the oxidation of formic acid were investigated by cyclic voltammetry（CV） and chronoamperometry（CA）.It is found that the electrocatalytic activity and stability of Pd/Gr/PI are superior to those of Pd/COOH-CNTs/PI catalyst.This is because smaller metal particles and higher dense distribution desirably provide abundant catalytic sites and mean higher catalytic activity.Therefore,the Pd/Gr/PI catalyst has better catalytic performance for formic acid oxidation than the Pd/COOH-CNTs/PI catalyst.

Synthesis and electro-optic properties of fluorine-containing polyimide

The fluorine-containing organic polymer was synthesized from 3, 3＇, 4, 4＇-Bisphenyltetracarboxylic （BPDA）, and 2,2-Bis （3-amino-4-hydroxyyphenyl） hexafluoropropane （6FHP）. It is a first-step preparation of a preimided hydroxy-containing polyimide, followed by the covalent bonding of an active chromophore, dispersed red 19 （DR19）, onto the backbone of the polyimide via the Mitsunobu reaction. The nonlinear optical （NLO） containing polyimide was synthesized. The differential scanning calorimeter （DSC）and thermal gravimetric analysis （TGA） exhibited Tg and the temperature Tg at which 5 % mass losses occurring of polymer were 248 and 309 ℃, respectively. A reflective electro-optic （EO） modulator using this polymer was fabricated. The optical nonlinearities were determined to be d33 = 5. 209×10^-9 esu （poling voltage of 3.6 kV, 205 ℃） and d33 =7. 418×10^-9esu （poling voltage of 3. 8 kV, 210 ℃） by the second harmonic generation method in in-situ condition at a fundamental wavelength of 1 064 nm. The EO coefficients 733 of the polymer layer in the EO modulator were determined to be 2. 182 pm/V （poling voltage of 3.6 kV, 205 ℃） and 3. 107 pm/V （poling voltage of 3.8 kV, 210 ℃） at 1064 nm by an attenuated-total-reflection （ATR） method.

Two-dimensional ATR-FTIR Spectroscopic Study on the Water Diffusion Behavior in Polyimide/Silica Nanocomposite

To consider the reliability and performance of electronic devices based on polyimide derivatives, dynamic water sorption and diffusion behavior in a polyimide derivative： poly（4＇4 oxydiphenylene pyromellitimide） （PMDA-ODA）/silica nanocomposite was investigated by two-dimensional ATR-FTIR spectroscopy, by which three states of water molecules owning different H-bonding strength were distinguished. The amounts and strength of H-bonding also played a significant role in determining the diffusion rate of the different states of water molecules. The type of aggregated water molecules which also formed H-bonding with silicic acid （residues） or polyimide system was the last one diffusing to the polymer side in contact with the ATR crystal element because the polymeric matrix blocked their diffusion to a great extent. The diffusion coefficient was also estimated to gain the information of the dynamic diffusion behavior.

Synthesis of a New Asymmetrical Ether Diamine with Aromatic Structure and Related Polyimide

A new aromatic asymmetrical ether diamine, 1,4-bis（3＇,4’-diaminophenoxy）benzene 3 was synthesized in three steps, using hydroquinone as starting material. A new aromatic polyimide containing asymmetrical diaryl ether segments was prepared from the resulting diamine with 4,4＇-oxydiphthalic anhydride （ODPA） via a conventional two-step thermal or chemical imidization method. The resulting polyimide exhibits high thermal resistance, excellent solubility, film-forming capability, high mechanical strength and modulus.

Porous and Ultra-Flexible Crosslinked MXene/Polyimide Composites for Multifunctional Electromagnetic Interference Shielding

Lightweight,ultra-flexible,and robust crosslinked transition metal carbide(Ti3C2 MXene)coated polyimide(PI)(C-MXene@PI)porous composites are manufactured via a scalable dip-coating followed by chemical crosslinking approach.In addition to the hydrophobicity,anti-oxidation and extreme-temperature stability,efficient utilization of the intrinsic conductivity of MXene,the interfacial polarization between MXene and PI,and the micrometer-sized pores of the composite foams are achieved.Consequently,the composites show a satisfactory X-band electromagnetic interference(EMI)shielding effectiveness of 22.5 to 62.5 dB at a density of 28.7 to 48.7 mg cm−3,leading to an excellent surface-specific SE of 21,317 dB cm^(2)g^(−1).Moreover,the composite foams exhibit excellent electrothermal performance as flexible heaters in terms of a prominent,rapid reproducible,and stable electrothermal effect at low voltages and superior heat performance and more uniform heat distribution compared with the commercial heaters composed of alloy plates.Furthermore,the composite foams are well attached on a human body to check their electromechanical sensing performance,demonstrating the sensitive and reliable detection of human motions as wearable sensors.The excellent EMI shielding performance and multifunctionalities,along with the facile and easy-to-scalable manufacturing techniques,imply promising perspectives of the porous C-MXene@PI composites in next-generation flexible electronics,aerospace,and smart devices.

Hierarchically Multifunctional Polyimide Composite Films with Strongly Enhanced Thermal Conductivity

The development of lightweight and integration for electronics requires flexible films with high thermal conductivity and electromagnetic interference(EMI) shielding to overcome heat accumulation and electromagnetic radiation pollution.Herein,the hierarchical design and assembly strategy was adopted to fabricate hierarchically multifunctional polyimide composite films,with graphene oxide/expanded graphite(GO/EG) as the top thermally conductive and EMI shielding layer,Fe_(3)O_(4)/polyimide(Fe_(3)O_(4)/PI) as the middle EMI shielding enhancement layer and electrospun PI fibers as the substrate layer for mechanical improvement.PI composite films with 61.0 wt% of GO/EG and 23.8 wt% of Fe_(3)O_(4)/PI exhibits high in-plane thermal conductivity coefficient(95.40 W(m K)^(-1)),excellent EMI shielding effectiveness(34.0 dB),good tensile strength(93.6 MPa) and fast electric-heating response(5 s).The test in the central processing unit verifies PI composite films present broad application prospects in electronics fields.

Polyimide separators for rechargeable batteries

Separators are indispensable components of modern electrochemical energy storage devices such as lithium-ion batteries(LIBs).They perform the critical function of physically separating the electrodes to prevent short-circuits while permitting the ions to pass through.While conventional separators using polypropylene(PP) and polyethylene(PE) are prone to shrinkage and melting at relatively high temperatures(150℃ or above) causing short circuits and thermal runaway,separators made of thermally stable polyimides(PIs) are electrochemically stable and resistant to high temperatures,and possess good mechanical strength-making them a promising solution to the safety concerns of LIBs.In this review,the research progress on PI separators for use in LIBs is summarized with a special focus on molecular design and microstructural control.In view of the significant progress in advanced chemistries beyond LIBs,recent advances in PI-based membranes for applications in lithium-sulfur,lithium-metal,and solid-state batteries are also reviewed.Finally,practical issues are also discussed along with their prospects.