Improved Microwave Ocean Emissivity and Reflectivity Models Derived from Two-Scale Roughness Theory

The Geometrical Optics(GO)approach and the FAST Emissivity Model(FASTEM)are widely used to estimate the surface radiative components in atmospheric radiative transfer simulations,but their applications are limited in specific conditions.In this study,a two-scale reflectivity model(TSRM)and a two-scale emissivity model(TSEM)are developed from the two-scale roughness theory.Unlike GO which only computes six non-zero elements in the reflectivity matrix,The TSRM includes 16 elements of Stokes reflectivity matrix which are important for improving radiative transfer simulation accuracy in a scattering atmosphere.It covers the frequency range from L-to W-bands.The dependences of all TSRM elements on zenith angle,wind speed,and frequency are derived and analyzed in details.For a set of downwelling radiances in microwave frequencies,the reflected upwelling brightness temperature(BTs)are calculated from both TSRM and GO and compared for analyzing their discrepancies.The TSRM not only includes the effects of GO but also accounts for the small-scale Bragg scattering effect in an order of several degrees in Kelvins in brightness temperature.Also,the third and fourth components of the Stokes vector can only be produced from the TSRM.For the emitted radiation,BT differences in vertical polarization between a TSEM and FASTEM are generally less than 5 K when the satellite zenith angle is less than 40°,whereas those for the horizontal component can be quite significant,greater than 20 K.

Rock physics and seismic reflectivity parameterization and amplitude variation with offsets inversion in terms of total organic carbon indicator

Total organic carbon (TOC) prediction with elastic parameter inversions has been widely used in the identification and evaluation of source rocks. However, the elastic parameters used to predict TOC are not only determined by TOC but also depend on the other physical properties of source rocks. Besides, the TOC prediction with the elastic parameters inversion is an indirect method based on the statistical relationship obtained from well logs and experiment data. Therefore, we propose a rock physics model and define a TOC indicator mainly affected by TOC to predict TOC directly. The proposed rock physics model makes the equivalent elastic moduli of source rocks parameterized by the TOC indicator. Combining the equivalent elastic moduli of source rocks and Gray’s approximation leads to a novel linearized approximation of the P-wave reflection coefficient incorporating the TOC indicator. Model examples illustrate that the novel reflectivity approximation well agrees with the exact Zoeppritz equation until incident angles reach 40°. Convoluting the novel P-wave reflection approximation with seismic wavelets as the forward solver, an AVO inversion method based on the Bayesian theory is proposed to invert the TOC indicator with seismic data. The synthetic examples and field tests validate the feasibility and stability of the proposed AVO inversion approach. Using the inversion results of the TOC indicator, TOC is directly and accurately estimated in the target area.

Passively Mode Locked Diode-End-Pumped Yb∶YAB Laser with High Reflectivity Type Semiconductor Saturable Absorption Mirror

A novel high reflectivity type of semiconductor saturable absorption mirror grown by metal organic chemical vapor deposition is presented.Using the mirror as well as an end mirror,passively mode locked Yb∶YAB laser is realized,which produces a pulse as short as 3 05ps at 1 044μm.The pulse frequency is 375MHz;the output power is 45mW.

Deghosting towed streamer data in τ/p domain based on rough sea surface reflectivity

Currently, the deghosting of towed streamer seismic data assumes a flat sea level and a sea-surface reflection coefficient of-1; this decreases the precision of deghosting. A new method that considers the rough sea surface is proposed to suppress ghost reflections. The proposed deghosting method obtains the rough sea surface reflection coefficient using Gaussian statistics, and calculates the optimized deghosting operator in the r/p domain. The proposed method is closer to the actual sea conditions, offers an improved deghosting operator, removes the ghost reflections from marine towed seismic data, widens the bandwidth and restores the low-frequency information, and finally improves the signal-to- noise ratio and resolution of the seismic data.

Reflectivity forward modeling and a CSSI method seismic inversion study of igneous intrusive area,coked area,and gas-enriched area located within a coal seam

We applied the reflectivity method and the constrained sparse spike inverse modeling(CSSI) method to the interpretation of coal field lithologic seismic data.After introducing the principles of these two methods we discuss some parameters of a geological model involving possible gas enriched areas or intruded igneous rock.The geological model was constructed and a 60 Hz seismic response profile was obtained looking for igneous rock intrusion and coked areas of the coal seam using the reflectivity method.Starting from synthesized logging data from two wells and a synthesized seismic wavelet we calibrated the model to show accurate strata.Finally,we predicted the lithology within a 10 m igneous rock area,a 3 m coal seam area,and a coked area using the CSSI technique.The results show that the CSSI technique can identify hard to recognize lithologic features that normal profil-ing methods might miss.It can quantitatively analyze and evaluate the intrusive area,the coked area,and the gas-enriched area.

Relationship between Cloud Characteristics and Radar Reflectivity Based on Aircraft and Cloud Radar Co-observations

Cloud properties were investigated based on aircraft and cloud radar co-observation conducted at Yitong, Jilin, Northeast China. The aircraft provided in situ measurements of cloud droplet size distribution, while the millimeter-wavelength cloud radar vertically scanned the same cloud that the aircraft penetrated. The reflectivity factor calculated from aircraft measurements was compared in detail with sinmltaneous radar observations. The results showed that the two reflectivities were comparable in warm clouds, but in ice cloud there were more differences, which were probably associated with the occurrence of liquid water. The acceptable agreement between reflectivities obtained in water cloud confirmed that it is feasible to derive cloud properties by using aircraft data, and hence for cloud radar to remotely sense cloud properties. Based on the dataset collected in warm clouds, the threshold of reflectivity to diagnose drizzle and cloud particles was studied by analyses of the probability distribution function of reflectivity from cloud particles and drizzle drops. The relationship between refiectivity factor （Z） and cloud liquid water content （LWC） was also derived from data on both cloud particles and drizzle. In comparison with cloud droplets, the relationship for drizzle was blurred by many scatter points and thus was less evident. However, these scatters could be partly removed by filtering out the drop size distribution with a large ratio of reflectivity and large extinction coefficient but small effective radius. Empirical relationships of Z-LWC for both cloud particles and drizzle could then be derived.

Reflectivity Measurement of Weak Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG)

One method based on the end-face reflection as a reference was used to measure weak grating reflectivity of 0.01%-1%. For measuring ultra-weak grating reflectivity, the grating group with an identical wavelength was used. By using anhydrous alcohol and deionized water as the reflecting medium, the single- pulse FBG reflectivity of a highly doped-Ge photosensitive fiber was calculated to be about 0.747% and 0.739%, respectively; and the single-pulse FBG reflectivity of ordinary SMF fiber was about 0.016% and 0.015%, respectively. The consistent results by the two different reflecting media showed that the end-face reflection method on the grating group was feasible.

Study on the Electromagnetic Interference of CFRC Composites by Reflectivity

The influence of dispersion of carbon fibers in carbon-fiber-reinforced cement-based composites （CFRC） on the mechanical properties of the composites was discussed. The microstructure of the fracture surface of the CFRC samples was observed with a scanning electron microscope （SEM）. The electromagnetic interference （EMI） was evaluated indirectly by reflectivity in the Naval Research Laboratory （NRL） testing system. The reflectivity of the electromagnetic radiation by the composites was measured in the frequency range of 8.0- 18.2 GHz for different carbon fiber contents of 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, and 1.0% （in wt pct）, respectively. The results showed that the reflectivity decreased with the growing fiber content till the percentage of 0.6%. The minimum reflectivity was -23 dB, far less than -10 dB, and the composites were strong wave absorbers. After this percentage, the curve increased abruptly as the fiber content proceeded. The electromagnetic waves were gradually reflected. When the fiber content reached 1.0% finally, the maximum reflectivity -7.5 dB appeared and there was stronger reflection. The shielding mechanism includes mainly reflection, absorption, and multiple reflections.

Prestack AVA joint inversion of PP and PS waves using the vectorized reflectivity method

Most current prestack AVA joint inversion methods are based on the exact Zoeppritz equation and its various approximations. However, these equations only reflect the relation between reflection coefficients, incidence angles, and elastic parameters on either side of the interface, which means that wave-propagation effects, such as spherical spreading, attenuation, transmission loss, multiples, and event mismatching of P-and S-waves, are not considered and cannot accurately describe the true propagation characteristics of seismic waves. Conventional AVA inversion methods require that these wave-propagation effects have been fully corrected or attenuated before inversion but these requirements can hardly be satisfied in practice. Using a one-dimensional(1 D) earth model, the reflectivity method can simulate the full wavefield response of seismic waves. Therefore, we propose a nonlinear multicomponent prestack AVA joint inversion method based on the vectorized reflectivity method, which uses a fast nondominated sorting genetic algorithm(NSGA II) to optimize the nonlinear multiobjective function to estimate multiple parameters, such as P-wave velocity, S-wave velocity, and density. This approach is robust because it can simultaneously cope with more than one objective function without introducing weight coefficients. Model tests prove the effectiveness of the proposed inversion method. Based on the inversion results, we find that the nonlinear prestack AVA joint inversion using the reflectivity method yields more accurate inversion results than the inversion by using the exact Zoeppritz equation when the wave-propagation effects of transmission loss and internal multiples are not completely corrected.

In-situ wafer bowing measurements of GaN grown on Si(111) substrate by reflectivity mapping in metal organic chemical vapor deposition system

In this work, the wafer bowing during growth can be in-situ measured by a reflectivity mapping method in the 3×2 Thomas Swan close coupled showerhead metal organic chemical vapor deposition（MOCVD） system. The reflectivity mapping method is usually used to measure the film thickness and growth rate. The wafer bowing caused by stresses（tensile and compressive） during the epitaxial growth leads to a temperature variation at different positions on the wafer, and the lower growth temperature leads to a faster growth rate and vice versa. Therefore, the wafer bowing can be measured by analyzing the discrepancy of growth rates at different positions on the wafer. Furthermore, the wafer bowings were confirmed by the ex-situ wafer bowing measurement. High-resistivity and low-resistivity Si substrates were used for epitaxial growth. In comparison with low-resistivity Si substrate, Ga N grown on high-resistivity substrate shows a larger wafer bowing caused by the highly compressive stress introduced by compositionally graded Al Ga N buffer layer. This transition of wafer bowing can be clearly in-situ measured by using the reflectivity mapping method.

Influence of Silica Fume on the Reflectivity and Transmission Efficiency of Cement-Based Materials

As a kind of mineral admixture, silica fume has low permittivity, which will affect the electromagnetic properties of cement-based materials. To study the effect of silica fume on the properties of cement-based materials, the reflectivity, transmission efficiency and pore structure were analyzed by using the vector network analyzer and mercury injection apparatus. Results show that silica fume can make the mortar more compact and the porosity of sample with 9% silica fume is only 17.8%, which is far lower than the control sample;With the increase of the silica fume content, the peak of reflectivity curve increases from -23.2 dB to -16.0 dB, and then decreases from -16.04 dB to -28.7 dB in the frequency range of 6 – 18 GHz. Reflectivity of sample with 3% content of silica fume is lower than other samples within 26.5 - 40 GHz;Transmission efficiency of samples shows the trend of increase with silica fume content increases from 0% to 6% within 8.2 - 12.4 GHz, 12 - 18 GHz and 26.5 - 40 GHz, but when the content increases from 6% to 9%, the transmission efficiency of samples reduces.

Measurement of inner surface roughness of capillary by an x-ray reflectivity method

The inner surface roughness of a capillary is investigated by the reflectivity of x-rays penetrating through the capillary. The results are consistent with the data from atomic force microscope （AFM）. The roughness measured by this new method can reach the order of angstroms with high quality capillaries.

Study on the Relation Between the Reflectivity and Frequency in Dusty Plasma of the Polar Summer Mesopause

Relation between the volume reflectivity and frequency in view of the polar mesosphere summer echoes （PMSE） is studied using the small-scale structure of electron density caused by charged dust particles. A theoretical expression for the radar volume reflectivity is derived, which agrees with the statistical result. Both the theoretical and statistical results are confirmed with the data obtained from simultaneous observations at three frequencies. Hence the small-scale structure caused by charged dust particles may be a useful tool for the study on the generation mechanism of PMSE.

Spectral dispersion of cloud droplet size distributions and radar threshold reflectivity for drizzle

From first principles, we find that the radar threshold reflectivity between nonprecipitating clouds and precipitating clouds is strongly related to not only the cloud droplet number concentration but also the spectral dispersion of cloud droplet size distributions. The further investigation indicates that the threshold value is an increasing function of spectral dispersion and cloud droplet number concentration. These results may improve our understanding of the cloud-precipitation interaction and the aerosol indirect effect.

Short-duration transient visual evoked potentials and color reflectivity discretization analysis in glaucoma patients and suspects

AIM： To evaluate the use of short-duration transient visual evoked potentials（VEP） and color reflectivity discretization analysis（CORDA） in glaucomatous eyes,eyes suspected of having glaucoma,and healthy eyes.METHODS： The study included 136 eyes from 136 subjects： 49 eyes with glaucoma,45 glaucoma suspect eyes,and 42 healthy eyes.Subjects underwent Humphrey visual field（VF） testing,VEP testing,as well as peripapillary retinal nerve fiber layer optical coherence tomography imaging studies with post-acquisition CORDA applied.Statistical analysis was performed using means and ranges,ANOVA,post-hoc comparisons using Turkey＇s adjustment,Fisher＇s Exact test,area under the curve,and Spearman correlation coefficients.RESULTS： Parameters from VEP and CORDA correlated significantly with VF mean deviation（MD）（P〈0.05）.In distinguishing glaucomatous eyes from controls,VEP demonstrated area under the curve（AUC） values of 0.64-0.75 for amplitude and 0.67-0.81 for latency.The CORDA HR1 parameter was highly discriminative for glaucomatous eyes vs controls（AUC=0.94）.CONCLUSION： Significant correlations are found between MD and parameters of short-duration transient VEP and CORDA,diagnostic modalities which warrant further consideration in identifying glaucoma characteristics.

Ground-Based Radar Reflectivity Mosaic of Mei-yu Precipitation Systems over the Yangtze River–Huaihe River Basins

The 3D radar reflectivity produced by a mosaic software system, with measurements from 29 operational weather radars in the Yangtze River–Huaihe River Basins（YRHRB） during the mei-yu season of 2007, is compared to coincident TRMM PR observations in order to evaluate the value of the ground-based radar reflectivity mosaic in characterizing the 3D structures of mei-yu precipitation. Results show reasonable agreement in the composite radar reflectivity between the two datasets,with a correlation coefficient of 0.8 and a mean bias of -1 dB. The radar mosaic data at constant altitudes are reasonably consistent with the TRMM PR observations in the height range of 2–5 km, revealing essentially the same spatial distribution of radar echo and nearly identical histograms of reflectivity. However, at altitudes above 5 km, the mosaic data overestimate reflectivity and have slower decreasing rates with height compared to the TRMM PR observations. The areas of convective and stratiform precipitation, based on the mosaic reflectivity distribution at 3-km altitude, are highly correlated with the corresponding regions in the TRMM products, with correlation coefficients of 0.92 and 0.97 and mean relative differences of -7.9% and -2.5%, respectively. Finally, the usefulness of the mosaic reflectivity at 3-km altitude at 6-min intervals is illustrated using a mesoscale convective system that occurred over the YRHRB.

Evaluation on Radar Reflectivity-Rainfall Rate (Z-R) Relationships for Guyana

The constant development of science and technology in weather radar results in high-resolution spatial and temporal rainfall estimates and improved early warnings of meteorological phenomena such as flood [1]. Weather radars do not measure the rainfall amount directly, so a relationship between the reflectivity (Z) and rainfall rate (R), called the Z-R relationship (Z = aRb), where a and b are empirical constants, can be used to estimate the rainfall amount. In this research, mathematical techniques were used to find the best climatological Z-R relationships for the Low Coastal Plain of Guyana. The reflectivity data from the S-Band Doppler Weather Radar for February 17 and 21, 2011 and May 8, 2012 together with the daily rainfall depths at 29 rainfall stations located within a 150 km radius were investigated. A climatological Z-R relationship type Z = 200R1.6 (Marshall-Palmer) configured by default into the radar system was used to investigate the correlation between the radar reflectivity and the rainfall by gauges. The same data sets were used with two distinct experimental Z-R relationships, Z = 300R1.4 (WSR-88D Convective) and Z = 250R1.2 (Rosenfeld Tropical) to determine if any could be applicable for area of study. By comprehensive regression analysis, New Z-R and R-Z relationships for each of the three events aforementioned were developed. In addition, a combination of all the samples for all three events were used to produce another relationship called “All in One”. Statistical measures were then applied to detect BIAS and Error STD in order to produce more evidence-based results. It is proven that different Z-R relationships could be calibrated into the radar system to provide more accurate rainfall estimation.

Reflectivity and thickness analysis of epiretinal membranes using spectral-domain optical coherence tomography

AIM：To compare thickness and reflectivity spectral domain optical coherence tomography（SD-OCT）findings in patients with idiopathic epiretinal membranes（ERMs）,before and after ERM peeling surgery,with normal controls.·METHODS：A retrospective study analyzing SD-OCTs of eyes with ERMs undergoing ERM peeling surgery by one surgeon from 2008 to 2010 and normal control eyes.SD-OCTs were analyzed using a customized algorithm to measure reflectivity and thickness.The relationship between the SD-OCT findings and best corrected visual acuity（BCVA）outcomes was also studied.·RESULTS：Thirty-four ERM eyes and 12 normal eyes were identified.Preoperative eyes had high reflectivity and thickness of the group of layers from the internal limiting membrane（ILM）to the retinal pigment epithelium（RPE）and the group of layers from the ILM to the external limiting membrane（ELM）.The values of reflectivity of these two groups of layers decreased postoperatively,but were still higher than normal eyes.In contrast,preoperative eyes had lower reflectivity of two10×15 pixel regions of interest（ROIs）incorporating：1）ELM＋outer nuclear layer（ONL）and 2）photoreceptor layer（PRL）＋RPE,compared to controls.The values of reflectivity of these ROIs increased postoperatively,but were still lower than normal controls.A larger improvement in BCVA postoperatively was correlated with a greater degree of abnormal preoperative reflectivity and thickness findings.·C ONCLUSION：Quantitative differences in reflectivity and thickness between preoperative,postoperative,and normal SD-OCTs allow assessment of changes in the retina secondary to ERM.Our study identified hyperreflective inner retina changes and hyporeflective outer retina changes in patients with ERMs.SD-OCT quantitative measures of reflectivity and/or thickness of specific groups of retinal layers and/or ROIs correlate with improvement in BCVA.

Satellite Observations of Reflectivity Maxima above the Freezing Level Induced by Terrain

Previous studies have recognized reflectivity maxima above the freezing level(RMAF) within stratiform precipitation over mountain slopes, however, quantitative studies are limited due to the lack of adequate identification criteria. Here, we establish an identification method for RMAF precipitation and apply it to the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission(TRMM) Precipitation Radar(PR) observations. Using the TRMM 2A25 product from 1998 to 2013, we show that the RMAF structure in reflectivity profiles can be effectively identified. RMAF exists not only in stratiform precipitation but also in convective precipitation. RMAF frequency is positively correlated with elevation, which is thought to be caused by enhanced updrafts in the middle layers of stratiform precipitation, or in the low to middle layers of convective precipitation over mountains. The average RMAF heights in stratiform and convective precipitation were 1.35 and 2.01 km above the freezing level, respectively, which is lower than previous results. In addition, our results indicate that the RMAF structure increased the echo top height and enhanced precipitation processes above the RMAF height, but it suppressed the downward propagation of ice particles and the near-surface rain rate. Future studies of orographic precipitation should take into account the impact of the RMAF structure and its relevant dynamic triggers.

Preliminary study of 0.14 THz water surface clutter reflectivity at near vertical incidence angle

As the development of radar systems developed for the terahertz and higher millimeter region continues to grow, the interest in the water surface and land clutter at terahertz and higher millimeter frequencies continues to increase. An empirical model of sea clutter reflectivity is described firstly, which is valid at near vertical incidence and has small average absolute deviation compared to other empirical models. Simulated results of 0.14 THz sea clutter at near vertical incidence with thismodel are shown. An indoor test-bed is constructed in order to measure 0.14 THz water surface clutter reflectivity and an experiment is carried out. Initial experimental results are presented and compared to the simulation results, which partially verifies that the empirical sea clutter model still works at 0.14 THz.