Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Community-based Natural Resource Management in Northeast India

Community-based natural resource management in northeast India has a long history. Indigenous knowledge and adaptation are the collective information, with improvement from generation to generation. The expectation is that under community control, local expertise on biodiversity will play a significant role in natural resource management through traditional practices. This paper discusses the characteristics and application of the traditional ecological knowledge of aboriginal peoples in northeast India and its role in natural resource management. Examples are provided in two different eco-cultural landscapes, i.e., Demazong (the Buddhist eco-cultural landscape in Sikkim Himalaya) and the Apatani eco-cultural landscape in Arunachal Pradesh, which illustrate the utility value of traditional ecological knowledge in sustainable natural resource management. Both eco-cultural landscapes are indeed very complex and highly evolved systems with high levels of economic and ecological efficiencies. The paper concludes that traditional ecological knowledge systems and institutions could serve as entry points into the sustainable utilization and management of natural resources. This could be achieved through the exploration of the cultural practices of the local people and integrating useful aspects into the modern natural resource management expertise. With rapidly depleting biodiversity in the developing tropic regions, there is a greater utilization today than ever before of the value of respecting the "Sacred" as a tool towards better conservation of natural resources.

Application of Traditional Ecological Knowledge in Food and Water Security in the Semi-Arid Turkana County, Kenya

Weather extremes negatively affect socioeconomic developments in arid and semi-arid areas (ASALs) and increase vulnerability of residents to food and water insecurity. Thus, communities adapt to such extremes of weather using Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) and/or Modern Technologies. Modern farming technologies and land resource developments in ASALs have in past ignored TEK, and in most cases led to undesired outcomes. It’s against this backdrop that this study was conceived to assess TEK among the Turkana people, its application and contribution to food and water security. The research adopted a cross-sectional social survey in collecting data from Central Turkana Sub-County residents. The study revealed that the Turkana people possess vast knowledge related to their environment;that this TEK plays a significant role in food production, preservation and in natural resource management. For instance, in 82% of the respondents use TEK in enhancing livestock production through the selection of livestock species that are suitable and drought tolerant;over 70% of them use TEK in reducing risk associated with livestock losses due to prolonged droughts. Further, TEK influenced the development and conservation of the water resources (r = 0.631;p < 0.01) including siting boreholes and wells. There was a strong correlation (r = 0.755;p < 0.01) between TEK and food security. TEK should be incorporated into the decision-making processes involving development projects within the ASALs.

Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Practices of Ethnic Kyrgyz of the Eastem Pamir in Ethnotoponyms

The author analyzes ethnotoponyms, the local place names of Kyrgyz people living in the Murgab region of Tajikistan＇s Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous region. The author conducted field research in the region in 2010-2015. The article also builds on data from the works of pre-Soviet Russian and western travelers, who studied the region at middle 19th early 20th centuries. The author concludes that local place names given by Kyrgyz people to the mountains, rivers, lakes, and valleys reflect the unique features of natural landscapes of Eastern Pamir as well as Kyrgyz nomads＇ empirical observations of natural phenomena and processes, livelihoods and nomadic values.

Effects of Traditional Ecological Knowledge on the Droughtresistant Mechanisms of the Hani Rice Terraces System

The Hani Rice Terraces System is one of the Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems（GIAHS） sites which can successfully resist extreme droughts.The reason is not only that the forests and terraces have the important function of water conservation,which provide and conserve adequate water resources for this complex ecosystem,but also that Hani traditional ecological knowledge plays an important role in the drought-resistance process.In this paper,drought-resistant mechanisms of the Hani Rice Terraces System have been analyzed first,then Hani traditional ecological knowledge has been analyzed based on a comprehensive literature review,a questionnaire survey and key informant interviews.The results show that the Hani nationality has developed knowledge of water management techniques,including water conserving construction,water allocation and ditch management.The Hani people are also highly conscious of water resources protection.There is a good deal of forest resource management knowledge and worship of forests,which have effectively helped in protecting the forest ecological system.In the reclamation and maintenance of Hani terraced fields,the Hani people have developed a series of farming systems,which have effectively protected the terrace ecosystem.Through analyzing this knowledge of water management,forest resource management and Hani terraced fields management,our paper confirms the important role that traditional ecological knowledge plays in maintaining stability of the system and realizing the efficient use of water resource.This is not only helpful for preserving cultural heritage,but is vital for protecting the Hani Rice Terraces System as a whole.

The Value of the Miao People’s Traditional Ecological Knowledge for a Solution to Rocky Desertification in Mashan

There are many branches of the Miao people in China, one of which is the Mashan Miao, who have been living in karst mountainous areas in southwest Guizhou Province. The Mashan Miao have adopted various measures for the conservation and effective utilization of the local ecological system and have made great achievements in this area. From the 1950s, their social environment has changed a lot due to political and economic movements. The rocky desertification in the Mashan area has gradually expanded. After the 1990s, relief work was carried out to address the desertification problem, but it was not very effective. We have been doing fieldwork in this area for more than 20 years and from our fieldwork records, we have found that the local Miao people have traditional ecological knowledge and skills that are of irreplaceable valuable for finding a solution for rocky desertification. Using the Miao knowledge we think a feasible way to control this disaster can be found.

Indian time:time,seasonality,and culture in Traditional Ecological Knowledge of climate change

Introduction:Western climate science and Traditional Ecological Knowledge(TEK)represent complementary and overlapping views of the causes and consequences of change.In particular,observations of changes in abundance,distribution,phenology,or behavior of the natural environment(including plants and animals)can have a rich cultural and spiritual interpretation in Indigenous communities that may not be present in western science epistemologies.Results:Using interviews with Indigenous elders and other Traditional Knowledge holders,we demonstrate that assumptions about the nature,perception,and utilization of time and timing can differ across knowledge systems in regard to climate change.Conclusions:Our interviewees’focus on relationality predisposes them to notice interactional changes among humans and other species,to be sensitive to smaller scale examples of change,to be more likely to see climate change as part of a broader time scale,and to link changes to a greater suite of socio-political phenomena,including the long arc of colonialism.One implication of this research and the interactions among humans and other species is that policies restricting Native and non-Native access to resources(i.e.,hunting and fishing)to certain calendar seasons may need to be revisited in a changing climate.

Integrated watershed management:evolution,development and emerging trends

Watershed management is an ever-evolving practice involving the management of land, water, biota, and other resources in a defined area for ecological, social, and economic purposes. In this paper, we explore the following questions： How has watershed management evolved？ What new tools are available and how can they be integrated into sustainable watershed management？ To address these questions, we discuss the process of developing integrated watershed management strategies for sustainable manage- ment through the incorporation of adaptive management techniques and traditional ecological knowledge. We address the numerous benefits from integration acrossdisciplines and jurisdictional boundaries, as well as the incorporation of technological advancements, such as remote sensing, GIS, big data, and multi-level social-eco- logical systems analysis, into watershed management strategies. We use three case studies from China, Europe, and Canada to review the success and failure of integrated watershed management in addressing different ecological, social, and economic dilemmas in geographically diverse locations. Although progress has been made in watershed management strategies, there are still numerous issues impeding successful management outcomes; many of which can be remedied through holistic management approaches, incorporation of cutting-edge science and technology, and cross-jurisdictional coordination. We conclude by high- lighting that future watershed management will need to account for climate change impacts by employing techno- logical advancements and holistic, cross-disciplinary approaches to ensure watersheds continue to serve their ecological, social, and economic functions. We present three case studies in this paper as a valuable resource for scientists, resource managers, government agencies, and other stakeholders aiming to improve integrated watershed management strategies and more efficiently and successfully achieve ecological and socio-economic management objectives.

Effects of Mesopotamian Marsh (Iraq) desiccation on the cultural knowledge and livelihood of Marsh Arab women

In this study,we evaluate ecological and cultural resiliency in response to desertification of the Mesopotamian Marshes of Southern Iraq.Our research illustrates that the desiccation of the marshes has caused a drastic change in how Marsh Arab women interact with their environment;specifically,in comparison to the predesiccation period,women’s roles are increasingly limited to domestic rather than marsh-dependent activities.With the exception of raising water buffalo and limited horticulture activities,most families today have little opportunity to utilize women’s ability to generate income by applying their traditional ecological knowledge and skills.Furthermore,these women are no longer transmitting their marsh-specific knowledge and skills to the next generation,and these valuable and ancient cultural memories are being lost.Upstream dam construction,drought,and regional climate change is depriving Marsh Arab communities of marsh eco-system services such as potable water,water buffalo forage,fish yields,and reed production.In marsh areas,where enough water remains to sustain ecosystem services(such as in Chibayish and the Iraq Marshlands Na-tional Park),cultural knowledge has been retained and passed on to the next generations.We recommend that programs be implemented to preserve these traditional skills,to develop a market for handicrafts to support women and their families,and to support cultural knowledge.Otherwise,with the passing of the older genera-tion,these remnants of ancient Sumerian knowledge systems and traditional ways of life will soon be forgotten.

Suppressive Effects of Traditional Mulching Using Japanese Knotweed(Fallopia japonica)on Solanaceae Crop Diseases

Poaceae plant species,such as silver grass,are commonly used in mulching activities Japan.In contrast,local farmers have traditionally used Japanese knotweed(Fallopia japonica)mulch in the cultivation of solanaceous crops in the Nishi-Awa area of Japan,which is a Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems site.We have previously evaluated the positive effects of Japanese knotweed mulching on solanaceous crops,such as eggplants,tomato,and potato.In the present study,we observed that the naturally occurring diseases in the solanaceous crops tended to decrease when the knotweed mulching system was adopted,in comparison to when Poaceae mulch was adopted.In eggplants,leaf mold and powdery mildew decreased under Japanese knotweed mulching.We further evaluated the effects of Japanese knotweed mulching by inoculating test plants with Pseudomonas cichorii.We observed suppression of bacterial disease and tomato mosaic virus under Japanese knotweed mulching and following spraying with Japanese knotweed extracts.In addition,disease-resistance genes were expressed at high levels in Arabidopsis thaliana,a model plant,following treatment with Japanese knotweed extracts.The results suggest that Japanese knotweed has potential applications in future sustainable agriculture activities.

Why we gather:traditional gathering in native Northwest California and the future of bio-cultural sovereignty

Introduction:The concept of bio-cultural sovereignty is drawn from Native American Studies scholar Stefano Varese who explores the daily forms of biological and cultural resistance and adaptation in South America.This article extends Varese’s notions by exploring biological and cultural resistance in Native California with a particular focus on the continuing cultural practice of gathering.Methods:This article provides a case study analysis of the Lyng v.Northwest Indian Cemetery Protective Association(1988)Supreme Court case and uses traditional ecological knowledge to evaluate how bio-cultural sovereignty is affected by federal land management policies and Western constructions of ecology and the law.The methods are based in an interdisciplinary approach that embraces theoretical notions from linguistics,cultural anthropology,law,environmental justice,history,ecology,and Native American Studies.Results:As a practitioner of traditional ecological knowledge,I offer an analysis of ecological gathering practices to argue that policies,procedures,methodologies,or experiments should be designed in a way that acknowledges the indigenous bio-cultural sovereignty of the land space.Conclusions:Tribes have enacted and continue to enact bio-cultural sovereignty,which solidifies their relationship with the land.Written policies can be used to protect Native interests and to develop a relationship between Native peoples and other agencies.Federal agencies can benefit from these partnerships as tribes can offer assistance to care for these land spaces,state agencies can alleviate potential funding issues for maintaining these areas,and researchers and academics can construct knowledge that incorporates traditional ecological practices to build solid,informed best practices.

Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems(GIAHS)of China:the challenge of complexity in research

The challenge of researching Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems(GIAHS)as complex systems forms the subject matter of this study.Complex adaptive systems are those that combine natural ecological processes with human interactions to produce a mutually supportive agro-ecological system.In China,these highly varied systems have the added dimension of long historical time,in that they have evolved over many centuries and thus add a historical dimension to the natural and human dimensions of complexity.In preparing research on GIAHS,it is clear that seeing GIAHS sites as whole systems is an essential starting and ending point.Examining the adaptive capacity of a GIAHS with its multiple scales and complex interdependencies is a major challenge for researchers accustomed to specialized disciplinary thinking.A GIAHS represents a mature agro-ecological system with human agency as a central component that has been honed over many centuries,and has already adapted to many perturbations and changes.The beauty of the GIAHS is in the integration of custom,knowledge,and practice,and it should be studied for its"wholeness"as well as for its resilience and capacity for"self organization."The agro-ecological approach opens the possibility of researching a system as a whole and of taking its complexity seriously.This study reviews the essential features of the GIAHS as a complex adaptive system where uncertainty is normal and surprise is welcome and,in a case study of Qingtian rice–fish culture system,focuses on new perturbations,namely loss of young people and the introduction of tourism.

Classification and management of community forests in Indian Eastern Himalayas:implications on ecosystem services,conservation and livelihoods

Introduction:Evidence is mounting that traditional knowledge can play a critical role in shaping the biodiversity conservation strategies and maintaining ecosystem services.This study was conducted with Adi community of Arunachal Pradesh(Ar P)state in the Eastern Indian Himalayas to understand as how local systems of forest classification governs conservation tradition and influences subsistence livelihoods.Twenty Adi villages were sampled from East Siang district of Ar P.A total of 197 men and 204 women(total of 401)Adi respondents were selected for this study.A combination of methodologies including in-depth interview,transect walks,focus group discussion,participant observation and informal interactions were combined for data collection.Results:Local forests are classified into 10 different categories based on indicators such as topography,cultural significance,use typology,ownership rights and plant diversity indicators.Local people assign different values(economic,cultural and ecological)to different forest types.Overall,morang followed by regpi and homegardens are perceived to be more valuable to the local needs than other forests with relative ranking of a particular forest reflecting its sustainability.Adis access several diverse services from these community-managed forests.Compared to men(3–35%),the role of women was assessed to be much higher(65 to 100%)in conserving forest biodiversity.Woman-led practices,instrumental in sustainable forest management,included deliberate manipulations of micro-habitats,sustainable harvesting strategies and species domestication.Men were mostly involved in ownership and decision-making roles and in devising social norms to ensure sustainability.Adi celebrate a number of cultural events to sustain biodiversity.Forest-based livelihoods are intrinsically connected to forest resource conservation and are governed by community approaches.Most of the community members gather plants,hunt wild animals and access other ecosystem services from these forests to sustain their livelihoods.Community-owned forests are collectively managed by an indigenous institution‘Kebang’.Conflicts relating to forest land use and resource management are resolved by the customary chief‘Gaon Burha’and his associates using traditional norms.Conclusions:Adi’s system of forest classification,based on ecological,socio-cultural and livelihood indicators,is a location-specific yet comprehensive in nature.Study suggests that integrating the local indicators applied in classifying and strategies applied in managing the local forests can provide valuable insights to the policy makers for the sustainable conservation of forest resources.

Novel ecosystems in the restoration of cultural landscapes of Tl’chés,West Chatham Island,British Columbia,Canada

Introduction:The small archipelago of Tl’chés,in coastal British Columbia,has gone through drastic social-ecological change culminating in the decline of traditional management practices,invasion of exotic plant species and,in the early 1960s,land abandonment.This is a common trend in cultural landscapes around the world.Cultural landscapes have great social-ecological significance,including cultural safeguarding and renewal,as well as maintenance of biodiversity,ecosystem functions and services,making them objects of special attention in conservation and restoration efforts.This study investigates the relationship between the Lekwungen people and heavily altered ecosystems in the context of ecological restoration for the cultural landscapes of Tl’chés.Methods:In order to thoroughly explore the ecological,social and cultural aspects and processes involved in the restoration of Tl’chés,this study combined different environmental sciences methodologies,including historical and archival research,semi-structured interviews and participatory observation with Lekwungen participants,as well as ecological field assessments and an innovative mapping approach termed Terrestrial Cultural Ecosystem Mapping(TCEM).Results:This study generated historical and spatial references for ecosystem and land use change in West Chatham Island,as well as cultural and ecological understandings to support restoration.Although important native species such as Camassia spp.are still thriving,present-day ecosystems on this island are heavily altered from the natural Garry oak ecosystem reference sites and are largely dominated by exotic invasive shrubs and graminoid species.This investigation indicates that the Lekwungen value both the historical ecological conditions of the island and particular types of the present-day novel or hybrid ecological states,such as the overgrown heritage orchard and nonnative berries found on the islands.Conclusions:Present-day ecosystems of Tl’chés are a result of a hybrid management system(traditional and conventional),coupled with land abandonment for many decades.Restoration of Tl’chés must involve both ecological and cultural components.Therefore,intervention strategies should consider the incorporation of novel and hybrid ecosystems(i.e.naturalized exotic species)into a restoration plan for ecological,cultural,historical,and subsistence values.

The effects of indigenous prescribed fire on riparian vegetation in central California

Introduction:Fire has a long history,but little documented role,as a process in riparian ecosystems.For millennia California Indians have applied fire to riparian ecosystems for a variety of purposes,but the effects of such fires on riparian vegetation are poorly known outside of traditional knowledge structures of indigenous communities.Methods:This study involved the seasonal application of fire based on traditional ecological knowledge versus alternate burn methods to assess fire effects on riparian vegetation in central California.Results:While the annual variation amongst treatments was not significant,the results of this study suggest that fall burns support higher overall richness and native species richness;spring burns yield a decrease in overall richness,but an increase in native species richness;and summer burns contribute to an initial decline in overall and native species richness.The evenness indices of treatments increase most with spring and summer burning.Conclusion:These findings are key to understanding the seasonal role of fire in managing native species in areas prone to non-native or other invasive species.This research demonstrates the application of traditional ecological knowledge to facilitate an understanding of how prescribed fire could aid in the management and conservation of riparian ecosystems.

Ancient fish weir technology for modern stewardship: lessons from community-based salmon monitoring

Introduction:The UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples states that indigenous people have a fundamental right to contribute to the management of the resources that support their livelihoods.Salmon are vital to the economy and culture of First Nations in coastal British Columbia,Canada.In this region,traditional systems of management including weirs-fences built across rivers to selectively harvest salmon-supported sustainable fisheries for millennia.In the late-19th century traditional fishing practices were banned as colonial goverments consolidated control over salmon.Outcomes:In collaboration with the Hei ltsuk First Nation we revived the practice of weir building in the Koeye River.Over the first four years of the project we tagged 1,226 sockeye,and counted 8,036 fish during fall stream walks.We used a mark-recapture model which accounted for both pre-spawn mortality due to variation in temperature,and tag loss,to produce the first mark-resight estimates of sockeye abundance in the watershed(4,600-15,000 escapement).Discussion:High river temperatures are associated with increased en route morality in migrating adult sockeye.We estimated pre-spawn mortality ranged from 8-72%across the four years of study,highlighting the degree to which climate conditions may dictate future viability in sockeye salmon populations.These results demonstrate the power of fusing traditional knowledge and management systems with contemporary scientific approaches in developing local monitoring.

Common and conflicting objectives and practices of herders and conservation managers:the need for a conservation herder

The mutual dependence of extensive land-use and conservation management has become appar-ent in Europe in the last 20-30 yr.Extensive land-use often survives in protected areas only,in the form of conservation management.Knowledge of extensive herding and that of conservation management are parts of two knowledge systems(traditional and scientific)which often leads to conflicts between locals and con-servationists.We studied two herding/conservation systems(salt steppes and wood-pastures),and devel-oped an inventory on the common/similar and conflicting/different objectives and pasture management practices of herders and conservationists.Data were collected by participatory knowledge co-production in teamwork of the co-authors(herders,conservation managers,and scientists).Data were analyzed and discussed in teamwork too.Herders and conservationists identified 23 objectives and 29 management prac-tices.We found a number of common interests with respect to herding,the ideal state of pastures,legal provisions,and communication.Conflict resolution recommendations(e.g.,on time and place of grazing,pasture improvements)were also developed.We argue that by co-production of knowledge,and establish-ment of a herder“school”the mitigation of the existing conflicts would be more effective.Our conclusion is that a new profession is needed:that of the conservation herder.The conservation herder shall be an indi-vidual knowledgeable about herding and pasture management,trained in conservation and ecology,able to design management experiments,and develop novel but tradition-based management practices.As such,he/she could facilitate adaptation of extensive herding in the changing socio-economic environment.