Anthropogenic disturbance of aquatic biodiversity and water quality of an urban river in Penang, Malaysia

Malaysia's rapid economic and demographic development have placed negative pressure on its water supplies and the quality of the Juru River, which is close to the nation's capital and its major source of water. Healthy aquatic ecosystems are supported by physicochemical properties and biological diversity. This study evaluated the anthropogenic impacts on aquatic biodiversity, especially plankton, fish, and macrobenthos, as well as the water quality of the Juru River in the Penang area. Aquatic biodiversity and river water parameters were collected from ten sampling stations along the Juru River. Seven variables were used to assess the physicochemical environment: pH, temperature, total suspended solids (TSS), salinity, dissolved oxygen (DO), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), and chemical oxygen demand. At each sampling station, the total number of plankton, fish, and macrobenthic taxa were counted and analyzed. The relationships between the physicochemical parameters and aquatic biodiversity were investigated with biotypological analysis, principal component analysis, hierarchical cluster analysis, and linear regression analysis. These analyses showed that the richness and diversity indices were generally influenced by salinity, temperature, TSS, BOD, and pH. The data obtained in this study supported the bioindicator concept. The findings, as they related to scientifically informed conservation, could serve as a model for Juru River management, as well as for river management throughout Malaysia and other tropical Asian countries.

Effects of anthropogenic disturbances on natural regeneration and population structure of gum arabic tree (Acacia senegal)in the woodlands of Lake Baringo ecosystem, Kenya

Despite the ecological and economic importance of Acacia senegal, little is known about the effects of anthropogenic disturbances on its natural regeneration patterns and population structure. We investigated the effects of these factors within the Lake Baringo woodland ecosystem. Data was collected from 60 plots of 20 m × 20 m systematically distributed in four A. senegal-dominated populations within the Lake Baringo woodland. Sample populations spanned a degradation gradient measured by a population disturbance index (PDI). Trees were measured for diameter at breast height (DBH) and categorized by growth stages: seedling, sapling and adult tree. Higher seedling and sapling densities were recorded in lightly than heavily disturbed populations, but only sapling density was significantly different between the two disturbance levels (P = 0.02). Lightly disturbed populations revealed a reversed J-shape size-class distribution (SCD) indicative of stable structure unlike the heavily disturbed populations. The quotient and permutation indices indicated unstable populations with episodic recruitment and mortality. Our study reveals that natural regeneration and population structure of A. senegal were affected majorly by selective harvesting and heavy browsing. Suitable management strategies to control livestock grazing and illegal tree harvesting within the woodland is required to promote conservation of the species genetic resources

Microbial Diversity of Planctomycetes and Related Bacteria in Wetlands with Different Anthropogenic Disturbances

The diversity of Planctomycetes and related bacteria in 3 types of freshwater wetlands with different anthropogenic disturbances were investigated by cloning and sequencing PCR-amplified partial 16S rRNA genes. Three clone libraries were constructed using 16S rRNA-targeted forward PCR primer specific for Planctomycetales and general bacterial reverse primer. Phylogenetic analysis of the 16S rRNA gene sequences defined 95 operational taxonomic units (OTUs) with 163 sequences. The clone libraries covered a wide microbial diversity of Proteobacteria and the Planctomycetes-Verrucomicrobia-Chlamydiales (PVC) superphylum. The majority of the OTUs were related to the phylum of Planctomycetes (33 OTUs), Proteobacteria (22 OTUs) and Verrucomicrobia (22 OTUs). Four known genera from the Planctomycetes phylum were all detected. The genus Pirellula (18 OTUs) dominated the Planctomycetes community, but different patterns of distribution were observed in the wetlands. The littoral wetlands of Baiyangdian Lake with the least anthropogenic disturbances covered more species and showed the highest biodiversity. However, the Jiaxing paddy fields with the highest anthropogenic disturbances showed a higher biodiversity than that in the riparian wetlands of the North Canal. Bacteria distantly related to anammox bacteria were also detected with a small proportion (4 OTUs). It showed that wetlands hold a great biodiversity of phyla Planctomycetes and related bacteria; furthermore, there is ample opportunity to discover novel phylotypes of Planctomycetes in the wetland ecosystems.

Contemporary Asymmetric Genetic Introgression Between Two Pelophylax Species in Shanghai

Human disturbances are considered to break reproduction barriers among species.Significant increases in hybridization events have been reported among a large number of taxonomic groups in anthropogenic environments,providing novel insights into species evolution mechanisms and conservation management in the Anthropocene.The Eastern Golden Frog(Pelophylax plancyi)and BlackSpotted Frog(P.nigromaculatus)are two sympatric anuran species with a long history of mitochondrial genome introgression in highly urbanized continental East Asia.However,there is only limited understanding of the pattern of their contemporary hybridization and factors influencing their interspecific relationship under anthropogenic disturbances.Here,interspecific hybridization between P.plancyi and P.nigromaculatus at the population level was investigated in Shanghai.All except two haplotypes obtained from both species in Shanghai were mixed together,and located in the introgression clade,implying multiple ancient mitochondrial introgression events occurred in the populations of our study area.Asymmetric genetic introgression was detected by microsatellite markers,with 0.7%of P.plancyi and 14.6%of P.nigromaculatus identified as contemporary admixed individuals.Consistent with the trend of population density,higher genetic diversity of neutral microsatellite loci was found in the more abundant P.plancyi;however,variation in mitochondrial(Cyt-b)and nuclear(POMC)genes was higher in relatively rare P.nigromaculatus.The population density of P.plancyi and number of water patches within local habitats were significantly positively correlated with both occurrences and proportions of admixed individuals in the populations of P.plancyi and P.nigromaculatus.Considering the prevalent transformation of habitats in urbanized areas,these results imply that a high population density in isolated artificially altered habitats is likely to increase interspecific hybridization.Thus,population monitoring and improvement of landscape connectivity between habitats would be needed to control the intensity of interspecific hybridization between P.plancyi and P.nigromaculatus in anthropogenic-disturbed environments.

Woody plant assemblage and the structure of miombo woodland along a disturbance gradient in Hurungwe, Zambezi Valley, Zimbabwe

Miombo woodlands near human settlements are under significant pressures from human activities,with negative consequences on their structure and composition.As studies are limited,we assessed the structure and species composition of a portion of miombo woodland along an increasing disturbance gradient from a national park,through a buffer zone to communal lands in northeast Zimbabwe.Five concentric plots of 2 and 11 m radii were established in each area to record woody species composition,diameter,height,basal area,density and volume as well as evidence of disturbance.Effects of site,growth stage and their interaction on vegetation diversity and structural parameters were tested using a general linear model(GLM).Principal component analysis(PCA) tested the association between species and site and ANOVA the differences in the level of disturbance across strata.Species diversity did not differ between sites except for evenness,which increased with disturbance.Evenness and richness were greater in seedlings and saplings than mature trees across sites,respectively.Sapling and mature tree diameters differed significantly between sites.Volume and density of mature trees declined with increasing disturbance while seedling densities peaked at intermediate disturbance levels(buffer zone).Tree harvesting,was more evident in the buffer zone and in the communal area relative to the national park.In contrast,fire frequency was greater in the national park and in the buffer zone relative to the communal area.The results of this study identify a true miombo woodland dominated by Brachystegia boehmii with a stable population,as illustrated by an inverse-J shape in diameter class distribution on all sites,and that these woodlands are generally resilient to disturbances,maintaining similar species composition and structure at various levels of disturbance.However,continued monitoring of disturbance levels and miombo woodland response is recommended to ensure sustainable utilisation of these resources.

Anthropogenic Pressure on Structure and Composition of a Shola Forest in Kerala, India

The montane closed evergreen forests found at altitudes above 1,800 m in the Western Ghats of India possess a distinct vegetation type and are called shola forests. Despite the fact that these forests are located in relatively inaccessible areas, they are still under anthropogenic pressure leading to continued habitat degradation and loss of biomass and biodiversity. A case study was conducted in Mananvan shola, the largest shola forest in Kerala of Western Ghats, to recognize the impact of disturbance on vegetation structure, composition and regeneration pattern, to identify the socio-economic reasons for disturbance and to evolve strategies for its management. In the disturbed part of the forest, dominance of light demanding species in tree, shrub and herb communities has been recorded. Here even the dominance of exotic species in tree seedling, shrub and herb communities is prominent. Skewed girth class distribution of tree community with poor representation by the individuals of girth class 30.1 to 90.0 cm, is also an indication of the collection of small wood and poles from the forest. The RISQ (Ramakrishnan Index of Stand Quality) in the disturbed area of the forest is above 2.0 as against near to 1.0 in relatively undisturbed forest standssuggesting that the disturbance is intensive and thus natural recovery process would be slow. Socio- economic analysis in villages located near the shola forest revealed the fact that the people depended heavily on this forest for their livelihood. Thus, the crux and the success of future management and conservation strategy depend on how one can reduce the dependency of people on the shola vegetation. Enrichment planting in disturbed parts of shola, enhancement of firewood by raising energy plantations, as well as development of lemongrass and firewood based agroforestry systems and reduction of grazing pressure by developing silvopastoral systems are the major strategies for the conservation of these shola forests.

Ice Sheet Melt and Ozone Hole Variations on Three Solar Cycles Possible Anthropogenic Interactions

This paper investigated the information about Ice sheet melt and Ozone hole variations during three solar cycles. After performing the inquiry on the data, the final results pointed out that both phenomena varying accord with Earth’s seasonality. The sea melt extension depends on the season and if the ocean waters are warmer around the polar caps. We checked the suggestion that anthropogenic perturbations could influence the variations in both phenomena.

Soil Seed Bank Characteristics of the Mbe and Nguela Shrub Savannas, and Implications for the Reforestation, Republic of Congo

The soil seed bank is an important source of restoration and resilience of disturbed ecosystems. This study evaluates the regeneration potential through the soil seed bank of the shrub savannas of Nguela and Mbe in order to predict the eventual dynamics. Three plots of 0.25 ha subdivided into four sub-plots of 0.015 ha have been installed in each savannah. In total, 48 samples of each savannah, i.e. 96 samples of both savannas, have been taken from the soil layers, 0 - 5 cm, 5 - 10 cm, 10 - 15 cm and 15 - 20 cm. Species diversity and abundance of the soil seed bank have been assessed after germination. The results reveal 167 seedlings belonging to 23 species in the Mbe savannah and 144 seedlings belonging to 14 species in the Nguela savannah. The total densities of the germinated seeds were respectively 463.63 seeds/m2 and 400 seeds/m2. Nevertheless, the 20 cm deep layers have illustrated themselves compared to the superficial layers with densities of 16.29 seeds/m2 and 21.66 seeds/m2, respectively, in the savannas of Mbe and Nguela. Herbaceous species largely dominated, with percentages of 91% and 100%, respectively, in the savannas of Mbe and Nguela. Alone, the Trema orientalis (L.) Blume species has been identified as woody species in the Mbe savannah. The greatest specific richness has been obtained in the first five centimeters of soil, with 21.73% and 28.57% of exclusive species, respectively, in the savannas of Mbe and Nguela. The results reveal that restoration through the soil seed bank would be limited to a single woody species found (T. orientalis). Consequently, the study suggests silvicultural interventions based on planting or enrichment techniques for sustainably managed savannas exposed to anthropogenic disturbances.

Preliminary Report on the Anurans of Mount Hilong-hilong, Agusan Del Norte, Eastern Mindanao, Philippines

Mount Hilong-hilong is a key biodiversity area, spanning several municipalities in the provinces of the Caraga Region （Agusan del Norte, Agusan del Sur, Surigao del Norte and Surigao del Sur）, northeastern Mindanao Island, southern Philippines. The Hilong-hilong massif remains one of the most signiifcant forested areas in Mindanao, threatened with habitat modification （forest removal, degradation） and other anthropogenic disturbances related to renewable resource extraction. Amphibians are key indicator species for environmental quality and are useful focal taxa for conservation efforts. Relying on historical museum database information and new survey work on Mount Hilong-hilong, we provide species accounts and describe microhabitat preferences of the anurans （frogs and toads） present in the area. Twenty-seven species representing seven anuran families were studied in detail at elevations between 700 to 1300 meters above sea level; 16 of these species are Mindanao faunal region endemics. Qualitative overlap in microhabitat use was observed, suggesting that, for the species recorded, intact forest may ensure species persistence to some levels of anthropogenic disturbance. A more extensive herpetofaunal survey is needed to fully estimate the herpetofaunal diversity of Mount Hilong-hilong. Because amphibians represent ifne-scale indicators of environmental quality and microendemism, we recommend appropriate ifne-scaled regional strategies geared towards the conservation of amphibians in the Caraga area, northeast Mindanao Island.

Edge effects on plant diversity in tropical forest ecosystems at Periyar Wildlife sanctuary in the Western Ghats of India

Forest resource conservation has been widely accepted as a key to sustain the local and regional economic development. The forest edges are affected by anthropogenic activities including deforestation, forest fragmentation, selective logging, extraction of non-timber forest products, collection of medicinal plants, recreations, hydroelectric pro- jects and its associated developmental activities, which alter the biodiver- sity. The present study intends to evaluate the edge effect on vegetation structure and species compositions in the tropical forest ecosystems at Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary in the Western Ghats. High species richness （number of species） and Shannon＇s diversity indices were observed in the site IlI （completely undisturbed forest） compared to site I （adjacent to the village/edge of the forest, which is next to the teal（ plantation, severely disturbed forest） and site II （in between the undisturbed forest and mod- erately disturbed forest） while density of tree species showed greater value in site II. Single species such as Tectona grandis （IVI of 80） and Terminaliapaniculata （IVI of 112） were the dominant tree species in site I and site II, respectively, whereas, in site III Terminalia bellirica, Bishofia javanica and Syzgium gardneri shared the dominance. Perturba- tion leads to alien plant invasion particularly Lantana camara, Eupato- rium odoratum and Ageratum conizoides. Site II is at forest transition level because the site is dominated by both natural species as well as plantation species such as Tectona grandis. This site seems to be a buffer zone on natural forest and plantations. Further studies are required to analyse the real patterns of regeneration and dynamic change due to human impact by long term monitoring with the establishment of perma- nent plots.

Biodiversity arks in the Anthropocene

The Anthropocene proposal suggested that the Earth may have entered a new geological epoch,in which human activity and climate change are influencing the environment at global scale.Arrival of the Anthropocene is bringing an unprecedented challenge to the biodiversity that is essential to humans,and enhancing many benefits of nature to human being.However,biodiversity loss is aggravating in the rhythm of inevitable change in the Anthropocene,and the adaptation of biodiversity to the anthropogenic disturbance seems unable to keep pace with the human activity and climate change.Therefore,re-examination of the assumptions and practices upon the current conservation endeavor are needed.We suggested that biodiversity conservation should be paid more attention to the response from biodiversity to the human activity and climate change in the Anthropocene.Thus,the concept of biodiversity arks in the Anthropocene is proposed,that is,biodiversity arks in the Anthropocene are the areas where vulnerable biodiversity is sheltered to alleviate human activity and buffered from climate change under the anthropogenic disturbance.The concept should be implemented for biodiversity conservation to fill gaps between our knowledge and build on successful conservation and sustainability in the Anthropocene.It will be certainly important to conservation policy instruction and management under climate change,especially the implementation of climate buffering zones preserving biodiversity in the face of warming climate.

Carbon accumulations by stock change approach in tropical highland forests of Chiapas, Mexico

Changes in forest biomass and soil organic carbon reserves have strong links to atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration.Human activities such as livestock grazing,forest fires,selective logging and firewood extraction are the common disturbances that affect the carbon dynamics of the forest ecosystems.Here,we hypothesized that such anthropogenic activities significantly reduce the carbon stocks and accumulation rates in the tropical highland forests of the Sierra Madre de Chiapas in Southern Mexico.We sampled the Pinus oocarpa Scheide dominated forests within the elevation range of 900 to 1100 m above sea level in 2010,2014 and 2017.We measured the stand structural properties and used the reported allometric equations to calculate the tree carbon stocks.Stock change approach was used to calculate carbon accumulation rates.The results showed a gradual increase in carbon storage over the 7-year period from 2010 to 2017,but the rate of increase varied significantly between the study sites.The aboveground carbon stock was 107.25±11.77 Mg ha-1 for the site with lower anthropogenic intensity,compared to 74.29±16.85 Mg ha-1 for the site with higher intensity.The current annual increment for the forest with lower anthropogenic intensity was 7.81±0.65 Mg ha-1 a-1,compared to 3.87±1.03 Mg ha-1 a-1 in the site with high anthropogenic intensity.Although at varying rates,these forests are functioning as important carbon sinks.The results on carbon accumulation rates have important implications in greenhouse gas mitigations and forest change modelling in the context of changing global climate.

Dynamic of Mangrove Associated Molluscs in Anthropized Areas of the Cameroon Coastline

Due to unabated anthropogenic exploitations, mangrove forests globally are constantly under pressure and degradation, which may result in the reduction of ecosystem functioning and biodiversity. Molluscan fauna, which is one of the main macroinvertebrates that play a major ecological role in nutrient dynamics in mangroves, are sensitive to the changes in their habitat. This survey aims to assess the impact of anthropogenic activities on the diversity of molluscs’ communities in the mangrove forest. Anthropogenic disturbances within 20 sampling sites were valued at six mangrove stands and patched scoring the degree of influence according to vegetation, structure, waste and trampling. Molluscs were caught by hand and counted within 1 × 1 m2 plots placed at three points distant of 50 m established using a straight line transect of 100 m. Upon the 20 sites investigated, five were slightly disturbed, eight moderately disturbed and seven sites were highly disturbed. The mean abundance of molluscs decreased from slightly disturbed areas (172.25 ± 73.09 Ind·m−2) to highly disturbed areas (100.57 ± 62.84 Ind·m−2). Highly disturbed areas have shown lower species richness (R = 1.09 ± 0.15) and diversity (H’ = 2.30 ± 0.31). Human activities in the mangrove forest could particularly have effects on the diversity of molluscs, however, feature potential conservation measures have to be in harmony with the needs of the local population.

Diversity,population structure and regeneration status of arboreal species in the four sacred groves of Kushalnagar,Karnataka

Assessment of tree species diversity, structure and regeneration status of four sacred groves of Kushalnagar,southern Karnataka was carried out. The random quadrat method was employed in each grove for enumeration of tree diversity and regeneration status. A total of 98 tree species belonging to 38 families were found from the sampled areas.These groves possess higher diversity and basal area. Some67 % of species have shown regeneration, while 17 % of species had no regeneration. Another 15 % of species were reappearing or immigrating. It is observed that increased disturbance was directly proportional to number of reappearing or immigrating species and inversely proportional to the diversity in all the sacred groves. Significant impact on diversity, species richness and regeneration status of the flora due to manifold anthropogenic activities have been recorded.

Impact of tourism on the vigilance behavior of the Cyprus rock agama(Laudakia cypriaca)

Escape behavior is a common antipredator strategy among wild animals.Here,we investigated the effect of four factors on the vigilance behavior of the endemic Cyprus rock agama(Laudakia cypriaca).Flight initiation distance(FID,the minimum distance to which an observer can approach a lizard before it flees)was measured in relation to the type of location(tourist vs.nontourist area),the observer’s starting distance,air temperature,and substrate temperature.We collected data for 39 agamas in tourist areas and 34 of these lizards in nontourist areas.As a whole,the mean starting distance was 10.5 m and the FID was 3.6 m.The average substrate temperature was 34.0℃ and the average air temperature 29.6℃.Only the type of area affected the agamas’escape decisions with FID being 1.8 m shorter in tourist areas than in nontourist areas(2.7 m vs.4.5 m).This is probably due to the habituation of lizards to the presence of humans in the former areas.This study shows that tourism strongly affects the behavior of lizards,which may have consequences for the functioning of the population.Tourists can increase the safety of lizards by creating a human shield to deter predators.Once the tourist season is over,lizards may become more vulnerable to predators.

Summer habitat selection and impacts of human disturbance on leopard cats(Prionailurus bengalensis)

Introduction:As a consequence of habitat loss and degradation,the leopard cat(Prionailurus bengalensis)in China has become endangered and in need of urgent protection.In situ conservation of leopard cats must be based on an understanding of their habitat selection patterns.We studied the summer habitat of leopard cats using line-transect surveys in the northern Taihang Mountain region surrounding Beijing,China.We compared used plots with non-used plots in elevation,tree canopy,and 20 other ecological variables,and used VanderploegScavia’s resource selection index(VSI)to analyze habitat preferences.Outcomes/others:Results show that tree canopy,tree height,tree density,and stump quantity of used plots were significantly lower than non-used plots in summer,and that leopard cats preferred habitats located on northern,flat slopes with lower slope,shrub-dominated,dry soil,and less fallen-wood.Leopard cats had a strong tendency to use habitats near human disturbance areas with moderate levels of disturbance intensity.Conclusion:The results suggest that future conservation efforts should emphasize:(1)strengthening the protection and management of forest fringe shrub habitats to improve summer habitat suitability,and(2)environmental education and animal protection campaigns to promote community biodiversity conservation.

Seasonal resource selection of an arboreal habitatspecialist in a human-dominated landscape: A case studyusing red panda

Human-dominated landscapes provide heterogeneous wildlife habitat. Conservation of habitat specialists, like red pandas Ailurus fulgens, inhabiting such landscapes is challenging. Therefore, information on resource use across spatial and temporal scales could enable informed-decisionmaking with better conservation outcomes. We aimed to examine the effect of geo-physical, vegetation, and disturbance variables on fine-scalehabitat selection of red pandas in one such landscape. We equipped 10 red pandas with GPS collars in eastern Nepal in 2019 and monitoredthem for 1 year. Our analysis was based on a generalized-linear-mixed model. We found the combined effect of geo-physical, vegetation, anddisturbance variables resulted in differences in resource selection of red pandas and that the degree of response to these variables variedacross seasons. Human disturbances, especially road and cattle herding activities, affected habitat utilization throughout the year whereas othervariables were important only during restricted periods. For instance, geo-physical variables were influential in the premating and cub-rearingseasons while vegetation variables were important in all seasons other than premating. Red pandas selected steeper slopes with high solarinsolation in the premating season while they occupied elevated areas and preferred specific aspects in the cub-rearing season. Furthermore,the utilized areas had tall bamboo in the birthing and cub-rearing seasons while they also preferred diverse tree species and high shrub coverin the latter. Our study demonstrates the significance of season-specific management, suggests the importance of specific types of vegetationduring biologically crucial periods, and emphasizes the necessity to minimize disturbances throughout the year.

Ecotourist trail-use affects the taxonomic, functional and phylogenetic diversity of mammals in a protected area: lessons for conservation management

Ecotourism,by definition,aims to engage peoples’interest in wildlife and the environment.The use of tourist roads and trails to access sites within protected areas(PAs)can detrimentally affect the behavior and distribution of species.The way mammals respond to anthropogenic pressures may differ across taxonomic,functional,and phy-logenetic groups;nevertheless,how ecotourist trail-use affects these different diversity remains under-investigated.Here,we assessed 6 metrics of taxonomic,phylogenetic,and functional diversity for a mammal community in a PA in central China,recording how Trail use(using Trail type as a proxy)and habitat variables affected sightings and signs of mammals across 60 replicate 0.5 km transects.We then examined how Trail use affected the taxonomic,functional,and phylogenetic diversity indices of species(>1 kg).Using generalized liner mixed modeling,we identified that more used trail types had a greater adverse effect on all diversity richness indices than did less used trail types.Consequently,tourist pressure was associated with a general tendency to homogenize the site’s mammal community.In contrast,the effects of Trail Types on all diversity evenness indices were non-significant.Further-more,more developed and more heavily used trail types had a greater,significant negative effect on taxonomic,functional,and phylogenetic richness,whereas these richness indices were unaffected by minor trail types,used less intensively.As a general principle,lower biodiversity indices reduce ecosystem resilience,and so it is vital to better understand these responses to balance public access against biodiversity management in PAs.

Effects of water level alteration on carbon cycling in peatlands

Globally,peatlands play an important role in the carbon(C)cycle.High water level is a key factor in maintaining C storage in peatlands,but water levels are vulnerable to climate change and anthropogenic disturbance.This review examines literature related to the effects of water level alteration on C cycling in peatlands to summarize new ideas and uncertainties emerging in this field.Peatland ecosystems maintain their function by altering plant community structure to adapt to changing water levels.Regarding primary production,woody plants are more productive in unflooded,well-aerated conditions,while Sphagnum mosses are more productive in wetter conditions.The responses of sedges to water level alteration are species-specific.While peat decomposition is faster in unflooded,well aerated conditions,increased plant production may counteract the C loss induced by increased ecosystem respiration(ER)for a period of time.In contrast,rising water table maintains anaerobic conditions and enhances the role of the peatland as a C sink.Nevertheless,changes in DOC flux during water level fluctuation is complicated and depends on the interactions of flooding with environment.Notably,vegetation also plays a role in C flux but particular species vary in their ability to sequester and transport C.Bog ecosystems have a greater resilience to water level alteration than fens,due to differences in biogeochemical responses to hydrology.The full understanding of the role of peatlands in global C cycling deserves much more study due to uncertainties of vegetation feedbacks,peat-water interactions,microbial mediation of vegetation,wildfire,and functional responses after hydrologic restoration.

Comparison of gastrointestinal parasite communities in vervet monkeys

Globally,habitat degradation is accelerating,especially in the tropics.Changes to interface habitats can increase environmental overlap among nonhuman primates,people,and domestic animals and change stress levels in wildlife,leading to changes in their risk of parasite infections.However,the direction and consequences of these changes are unclear,since animals may benefit by exploiting human resources(e.g.,improving nutrition­al health by eating nutritious crops)and decreasing susceptibility to infection,or interactions with humans may lead to chronic stress and increased susceptibility to infection.Vervet monkeys are an excellent model to under­stand parasitic disease transmission because of their tolerance to anthropogenic disturbance.Here we quantify the gastrointestinal parasites of a group of vervet monkeys(Chlorocebus aethiops)near Lake Nabugabo,Ugan­da,that frequently overlaps with people in their use of a highly modified environment.We compare the parasites found in this population to seven other sites where vervet monkey gastrointestinal parasites have been identi­fied.The vervets of Lake Nabugabo have the greatest richness of parasites documented to date.We discuss how this may reflect differences in sampling intensity or differences in the types of habitat where vervet parasites have been sampled.