Fermions: Spin, Hidden Variables, Violation of Bell’s Inequality and Quantum Entanglement

Using real fields instead of complex ones, it was recently claimed, that all fermions are made of pairs of coupled fields (strings) with an internal tension related to mutual attraction forces, related to Planck’s constant. Quantum mechanics is described with real fields and real operators. Schrodinger and Dirac equations then are solved. The solution to Dirac equation gives four, real, 2-vectors solutions ψ1=(U1D1)ψ2=(U2D2)ψ3=(U3D3)ψ4=(U4D4)where (ψ1,ψ4) are coupled via linear combinations to yield spin-up and spin-down fermions. Likewise, (ψ2,ψ3) are coupled via linear combinations to represent spin-up and spin-down anti-fermions. For an incoming entangled pair of fermions, the combined solution is Ψin=c1ψ1+c4ψ4where c1and c4are some hidden variables. By applying a magnetic field in +Z and +x the theoretical results of a triple Stern-Gerlach experiment are predicted correctly. Then, by repeating Bell’s and Mermin Gedanken experiment with three magnetic filters σθ, at three different inclination angles θ, the violation of Bell’s inequality is proven. It is shown that all fermions are in a mixed state of spins and the ratio between spin-up to spin-down depends on the hidden variables.

Conceptual Problems in Bell’s Inequality and Quantum Entanglement

The description of the microscopic world in quantum mechanics is very different from that in classical physics, and there are some points of view that are contrary to intuition and logic. The first is the problem of reality;quantum mechanics believes the behavior of micro particles is random and jumping. The second is the loss of certainty;the conjugate physical variables of a system cannot be determined synchronously, they satisfy the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. The third is the non-local correlation. The measurement of one particle in the quantum entanglement pair will influence the state of the other entangled particle simultaneously. In this paper, some concepts related to quantum entanglement, such as EPR correlation, quantum entanglement correlation function, Bell’s inequality and so on, are analyzed in detail. Analysis shows that the mystery and confusion in quantum theory may be caused by the logical problems in its basic framework. Bell’s inequality is only a mathematical theorem, but its physical meaning is actually unclear. The Bell state of quantum entangled pair may not satisfy the dynamic equation of quantum theory, so it cannot describe the true state of microscopic particles. In this paper, the correct correlation functions of spin entanglement pair and photonic entanglement pair are strictly derived according to normal logic. Quantum theory is a more fundamental theory than classical mechanics, and they are not equal relation in logic. However, there are still some unreasonable contents in the framework of quantum theory, which need to be improved. In order to disclose the real relationship between quantum theory and classical mechanics, we propose some experiments which provide intuitionistic teaching materials for the new interpretation of quantum theory.

Counterfactual Definiteness and Bell’s Inequality

Counterfactual definiteness must be used as at least one of the postulates or axioms that are necessary to derive Bell-type inequalities. It is considered by many to be a postulate that not only is commensurate with classical physics (as for example Einstein’s special relativity), but also separates and distinguishes classical physics from quantum mechanics. It is the purpose of this paper to show that Bell’s choice of mathematical functions and independent variables implicitly includes counterfactual definiteness. However, his particular choice of variables reduces the generality of his theory, as well as the physics of all Bell-type theories, so significantly that no meaningful comparison of these theories with actual Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen experiments can be made.

And If Bell’s Inequality Were Not Violated

It briefly recalls the theory of Bell’s inequality and some experimental measures. Then measurements are processed on one hand according to a property of the wave function, on the other hand according to the sum definition. The results of such processed measures are apparently not the same, so Bell’s inequality would not be violated. It is a use of the wave function which implies the violation of the inequality, as it can be seen on the last flowcharts.

Bell’s Inequality Should Be Reconsidered in Quantum Language

Bell’s inequality itself is usually considered to belong to mathematics and not quantum mechanics. We think that this is making our understanding of Bell’ theory be confused. Thus in this paper, contrary to Bell’s spirit (which inherits Einstein’s spirit), we try to discuss Bell’s inequality in the framework of quantum theory with the linguistic Copenhagen interpretation. And we clarify that the violation of Bell’s inequality (i.e., whether or not Bell’s inequality holds) does not depend on whether classical systems or quantum systems, but depend on whether a combined measurement exists or not. And further we conclude that our argument (based on the linguistic Copenhagen interpretation) should be regarded as a scientific representation of Bell’s philosophical argument (based on Einstein’s spirit).

Quantum Violation of Bell’s Inequality: A Misunderstanding Based on a Mathematical Error of Neglect

This paper intends to show how the fabled violation of Bell’s inequality by the probabilistic specifications of quantum mechanics derives from a mathematical error, an error of neglect. I have no objection to the probabilities specified by quantum theory, nor to the inequality itself as characterized in the formulation of Clauser, Horne, Shimony, and Holt. Designed to assess consequences of Einstein’s principle of local realism, the inequality pertains to a linear combination of four polarization products on the same pair of photons arising in a gedankenexperiment. My assessment displays that in this context, the summands of the relevant CHSH quantity s(λ) inhere four symmetric functional relations which have long been neglected in analytic considerations. Its expectation E[s(λ)] is not the sum of four “marginal” expectations from a joint distribution, as quantum theory explicitly avoids such a specification. Rather, I show that E[s(λ)] has four distinct representations as the sum of three expectations of polarization products plus the expectation of a fourth which is restricted to equal a function value determined by the other three. Analysis using Bruno de Finetti’s fundamental theorem of prevision (FTP) yields only a bound for E(s) within (1.1213,2] , surely not at all as is commonly understood. I exhibit slices of the 4-dimensional polytope of joint P++ probabilities actually motivated by quantum theory at the four stipulated angle settings, as it passes through 3-dimensional space. Bell’s inequality is satisfied everywhere within the convex hull of extreme distributions cohering with quantum theoretic specifications, even while in keeping with local realism. Aspect’s proposed “estimation” of E(s) near to is based on polarization products from different photon pairs that do not have embedded within them the functional relations inhering in the relevant gedankenexperiment. When one actively embeds the restrictions into Aspect’s estimation procedure, it yields an estimate of 1.7667, although this is not and cannot be definitive. While my analysis supports the subjectivist construction of probability as clarifying issues relevant to the interpretation of quantum theory, the error resolved herein is purely mathematical. It pertains to the reconsideration of Bell violation irrespective of one’s attitude toward the meaning of probability.

Quantum Correlations: Entropy, Wave/Corpuscle Dualism, Bell Inequality

The paper shows that the second law of thermodynamics and Pauli principle are implications of the Bell inequality.

The relation between Hardy's non-locality and violation of Bell inequality

We give an analytic quantitative relation between Hardy＇s non-locality and Bell operator. We find that Hardy＇s non-locality is a sufficient condition for the violation of Bell inequality, the upper bound of Hardy＇s non-locality allowed by information causality just corresponds to Tsirelson bound of Bell inequality and the upper bound of Hardy＇s non- locality allowed by the principle of no-signaling just corresponds to the algebraic maximum of Bell operator. Then we study the CabeUo＇s argument of Hardy＇s non-locality （a generalization of Hardy＇s argument） and find a similar relation between it and violation of Bell inequality. Finally, we give a simple derivation of the bound of Hardy＇s non-locality under the constraint of information causality with the aid of the above derived relation between Hardy＇s non-locality and Bell operator.

Strong violations of locality by testing Bell's inequality with improved entangled-photon systems

Bell’s theorem states that quantum mechanics cannot be accounted for by any local theory. One of the examples is the existence of quantum non-locality is essentially violated by the local Bell’s inequality. Therefore, the violation of Bell’s inequality(BI) has been regarded as one of the robust evidences of quantum mechanics. Until now, BI has been tested by many experiments, but the maximal violation(i.e., Cirel’son limit) has never been achieved. By improving the design of entangled sources and optimizing the measurement settings, in this work we report the stronger violations of the Clauser–Horne–Shimony–Holt(CHSH)-type Bell’s inequality. The biggest value of Bell’s function in our experiment reaches √to a significant one: S = 2.772 ± 0.063, approaching to the so-called Cirel’son limit in which the Bell function value is S = 22.Further improvement is possible by optimizing the entangled-photon sources.

Violations of Bell Inequality, Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality and Entanglement in a Two-Mode Three-Level Atomic System

Violations of Bell inequality, Cauchy-Schwarz inequality and entanglement in a two-mode three-level atomic system are investigated. It is shown that there are some states, which are entangled but do not violate Bell inequality in this system. Moreover, the relations of violations of Bell inequality, Cauchy-Schwarz inequality, and entanglement are discussed in detail.

Simplified Scheme for Test of Quantum Nonlocality Without Using Bell Inequality

A simplified scheme is proposed for the test of quantum nonlocality of the type described by Hardy [Phys.Rev.Left.71 (1993) 1665].In the scheme two appropriately prepared atoms are simultaneously sent through a cavity and dispersively interact with the cavity field.Then state-selective measurements are performed on these atoms,which may reveal quantum nonlocality without using Bell inequality.We also propose a simple scheme for the generation of multi-atom entangled states.

Bell's Inequality for a System Composed of Particles with Different Spins

For two particles with different spins, we derive the Bell＇s inequality. The inequality is investigated for two systems combining spin-1 and spin-1/; spin-1/2 and spin-3/2. We show that for these states Bell＇s inequality is violated.

Degree of Entanglement and Violation of Bell Inequality by Two-Spin-1/2 States

Bell inequality is violated by the quantum mechanical predictions made from an entangled state of the composite system. In this paper we examine this inequality and entanglement measures in the construction of the coherent states for two-qubit pure and mixed states, we find a link to some entanglement measures through some new parameters （amplitudes of coherent states）. Conditions for maximal entanglement and separability are then established for both pure and mixed states. Finally, we analyze and compare the violation of Bell inequality for a class of mixed states with the degree of entanglement by applying the formalism of Horodecki et al.

Inseparable Criterion and Bell Inequality

In this letter, we shall show how to construct constrained Bell-type inequality for a generaltwo-party system, and violating this inequality is equivalent to being inseparable. For 2 (×) 2 system, the maximum violation is 3,while for 3 (×) 3 system, the largest violation is 11/3.

The Bell Inequality, Inviolable by Data Used Consistently with Its Derivation, Is Satisfied by Quantum Correlations Whose Probabilities Satisfy the Wigner Inequality

It is not generally known that the inequality that Bell derived using three random variables must be identically satisfied by any three corresponding data sets of ±1’s that are writable on paper. This surprising fact is not immediately obvious from Bell’s inequality derivation based on causal random variables, but follows immediately if the same mathematical operations are applied to finite data sets. For laboratory data, the inequality is identically satisfied as a fact of pure algebra, and its satisfaction is independent of whether the processes generating the data are local, non-local, deterministic, random, or nonsensical. It follows that if predicted correlations violate the inequality, they represent no three cross-correlated data sets that can exist, or can be generated from valid probability models. Reported data that violate the inequality consist of probabilistically independent data-pairs and are thus inconsistent with inequality derivation. In the case of random variables as Bell assumed, the correlations in the inequality may be expressed in terms of the probabilities that give rise to them. A new inequality is then produced: The Wigner inequality, that must be satisfied by quantum mechanical probabilities in the case of Bell experiments. If that were not the case, predicted quantum probabilities and correlations would be inconsistent with basic algebra.

Conditional Independence Leads to Satisfaction of the Bell Inequality without Assuming Non-Locality or Non-Reality

The original Bell inequality was obtained in a statistical derivation assuming three mutually cross-correlated random variables (four in the later version). Given that observations destroy the particles, the physical realization of three variables from an experiment producing two particles per trial requires two separate trial runs. One assumed variable value (for particle 1) occurs at a fixed instrument setting in both trial runs while a second variable (for particle 2) occurs at alternative instrument settings in the two trial runs. Given that measurements on the two particles occurring in each trial are themselves correlated, measurements from independent realizations at mutually exclusive settings on particle 2 are conditionally independent, i.e., conditionally dependent on particle 1, through probability. This situation is realized from variables defined by Bell using entangled particle pairs. Two correlations have the form that Bell computed from entanglement, but a third correlation from conditionally independent measurements has a different form. When the correlations are computed using quantum probabilities, the Bell inequality is satisfied without recourse to assumptions of non-locality, or non-reality.

The Definition of Universal Momentum Operator of Quantum Mechanics and the Essence of Micro-Particle’s Spin——To Reveal the Real Reason That the Bell Inequality Is Not Supported by Experiments

The definition of momentum operator in quantum mechanics has some foundational problems and needs to be improved. For example, the results are different in general by using momentum operator and kinetic operator to calculate microparticle’s kinetic energy. In the curved coordinate systems, momentum operators can not be defined properly. When momentum operator is acted on non-eigen wave functions in coordinate space, the resulting non-eigen values are complex numbers in general. In this case, momentum operator is not the Hermitian operator again. The average values of momentum operator are complex numbers unless they are zero. The same problems exist for angle momentum operator. Universal momentum operator is proposed in this paper. Based on it, all problems above can be solved well. The logical foundation of quantum mechanics becomes more complete and the EPY momentum paradox can be eliminated thoroughly. By considering the fact that there exist a difference between the theoretical value and the real value of momentum, the concepts of auxiliary momentum and auxiliary angle momentum are introduced. The relation between auxiliary angle momentum and spin is deduced and the essence of micro-particle’s spin is revealed. In this way, the fact that spin gyro-magnetic ratio is two times of orbit gyro-magnetic ratio, as well as why the electrons of ground state without obit angle momentum do not fall into atomic nuclear can be explained well. The real reason that the Bell inequality is not supported by experiments is revealed, which has nothing to do with whether or not hidden variables exist, as well as whether or not locality is violated in microcosmic processes.

HARNACK'S INEQUALITY FOR GENERALIZED SUBELLIPTIC SCHRDINGER OPERATORS

We prove a uniform Harnack μu = 0, where △G is a sublaplacian, μ is scale-invariant Kato condition. inequality for nonnegative solutions of △u - a non-negative Radon measure and satisfying

The Bell Inequality Is Satisfied by Quantum Correlations Computed Consistently with Quantum Non-Commutation

In constructing his theorem, Bell assumed that correlation functions among non-commuting variables are the same as those among commuting variables. However, in quantum mechanics, multiple data values exist simultaneously for commuting operations while for non-commuting operations data are conditional on prior outcomes, or may be predicted as alternative outcomes of the non-commuting operations. Given these qualitative differences, there is no reason why correlation functions among non-commuting variables should be the same as those among commuting variables, as assumed by Bell. When data for commuting and noncommuting operations are predicted from quantum mechanics, their correlations are different, and they now satisfy the Bell inequality.

New Majorized Results on Hilbert's Integral Inequality

In this paper, some new majorized results on Hilbert’s integral inequality are showed.