The Structure and Function of Glial Networks:Beyond the Neuronal Connections

Glial cells,consisting of astrocytes,oligodendrocyte lineage cells,and microglia,account for>50% of the total number of cells in the mammalian brain.They play key roles in the modulation of various brain activities under physiological and pathological conditions.Although the typical morphological features and characteristic functions of these cells are well described,the organization of interconnections of the different glial cell populations and their impact on the healthy and diseased brain is not completely understood.Understanding these processes remains a profound challenge.Accumulating evidence suggests that glial cells can form highly complex interconnections with each other.The astroglial network has been well described.Oligodendrocytes and microglia may also contribute to the formation of glial networks under various circumstances.In this review,we discuss the structure and function of glial networks and their pathological relevance to central nervous system diseases.We also highlight opportunities for future research on the glial connectome.

Nanoparticle delivery for central nervous system diseases and its clinical application

In the treatment of central nervous system(CNS)diseases such as glioma,Alzheimer's disease(AD)and Parkinson's disease(PD),drugs are expected to reach specific areas of the brain to achieve the desired effect.Although a growing number of therapeutic targets have been identified in preclinical studies,the ones that can ultimately be used in the clinic are limited.Therefore,the research process and clinical application of drugs for treating CNS diseases are still large challenges.Physiological barriers such as the blood‒brain barrier(BBB)act as selective permeable membranes,allowing only certain molecules to enter the brain;this barrier is the major obstacle restricting the arrival of most drugs to brain lesions.Recently,nanoparticles,including lipid-based,cell-derived biomimetic,polymeric and inorganic nanoparticles,have gained increasing attention because of their ability to cross physiological barriers,and could play an important role as delivery carriers and immunomodulators.Additionally,clinical applications of nanoparticles in CNS diseases are underway.This review focuses on the progress of current research on the use of nanoparticles for the treatment of CNS diseases to provide additional insight into the treatment of CNS diseases.