The World Physical Triad: Matter, Antimatter and “Dark Energy” in the Processes of Climatic Changes on the Earth

The opening and many years of research of magnetic spinor particles (real magnetic charges) in atoms and substance have enabled the author to formulate the conception of the Physical Triad, according which the real World consists of three fundamental phases: Matter, Antimatter and Energo-phase (Energo-medium). Particles of Matter are called spinors and particles of Antimatter are called antispinors. Energo-medium is a gasiform phase of high density that fills by himself all the infinite space of the real World. It consists of spinless and massless particles-energions. Spinor fields can be both flows energions (fields of Matter), so and anti-flow energions (fields of Antimatter). Atomic-shaped structures consisting of electric and magnetic spinor particles represent a Physical Mass (atoms, nucleons, etc.). The main characteristic of all varieties of Mass is its ability radiate gravitational field, which is a vortex electromagnetic field. All spinor particles are massless so as individually generate a gravitational field they can’t. All primary forces in the real World are implemented by means of Energo-medium, i.e. contact pressure its particles—energions. The spinor fields, including the gravitational field, myself the real of the power significance, have not. They are only intermediaries, inducing in Energo-medium its active (power) education, which is called “Dark Energy”. “Dark Energy” can be both positive, so and negative. Namely, a positive “Dark Energy”, which is associated with the technical activity of man, is responsible for stable climatic changes on Earth. Greenhouse gases are not the main “culprit” of climatic changes on our planet. However, these gases are the simplest indicator of the overall level of irreversible physical processes that stimulate the growth of the positive “Dark Energy” and are responsible for the negative thermal scenario on Earth.

Sensitivity experiments and assessment of climatic changes in China induced by greenhouse effect

Climatic changes can be separated into two parts: natural changes -and human activity influenced on climatic changes. The observed data could not only show the effects caused by human activity. Several simulated results as simulated by the GCMs induced by the greenhouse effects in China .have been analysed. It is shown that an obvious warming of about 3-6℃ in winter and 2-5℃ in summer in China as simulated by the GCMs induced by doubling CO2 have been found. There are getting drier or wetter regions in China due to doubled CO2 as simulated by most of models. Comparing the simulated results with the observed data in China, some simulated results are able to be believed. The GCMs should be improved, especially in the regional areas.

Observed climatic changes in Shanghai during 1873-2002

Variation characteristics of temperature and precipitation in January and July and annual mean temperature and annual precipitation are analyzed with the help of cumulative anomalies, Mann-Kendall analysis and wavelet analysis. The research results indicate that January precipitation presents an increasing trend after 1990, wavelet analysis result suggests that this increasing trend will continue in the near future. The changes of July precipitation present different features. During 1900-1960, July precipitation is in a rising trend, but is in a declining trend after 1960. Wavelet analysis shows that this declining trend will go on in the near future. Temperature variations in Shanghai are in fluctuations with 2 to 3 temperature rising periods. Mann-Kendall analysis indicates that temperature variations have the obvious abrupt change time when compared with precipitation changes in Shanghai during the past 100 years. The abrupt change time of January temperature lies in 1985, and that of July temperature lies in 1931-1933 and annual mean temperature has the abrupt change time in 1923-1930. Except July precipitation, the precipitation in January, temperature in January, July and annual mean temperature, and annual precipitation are also in a rising trend in the near future. The research results in this paper may be meaningful for future further climatic changes of Shanghai and social mitigation of climatic disasters in the future.

Climatic changes have led to significant expansion of endorheic lakes in Xizang (Tibet) since 1995

Robust climate warming has led to significant expansion of lakes in the central Tibetan Plateau. Using remote sensing data, our quantitative analysis indicates that Siling Co, a saline lake in a characteristic endorheic basin in the central region of the Plateau, has expanded more than 600 km2 in area since 1976. Particularly since 1995, the lake has signif- icantly expanded in response to increasing precipitation, decreasing water surface evaporation caused by weaker winds and less solar radiation, and increased glacier meltwater draining to the lake. Glacie^lake interactions are important in governing lake expansion and are also part of a feedback loop that influences the local climate. Worsening climatic conditions （decreased precipitation and increased temperatures） that could have caused the lake to shrink during 1976-1994 were offset by increasing glacier meltwater feeding the lake, which made the lake nearly stable. We demonstrate that this pattern changed during 1995-2009, when glacier meltwater actually decreased but participation runoff increased and evaporation decreased, leading to expansion of the lake. If climatic conditions became suitable for further lake development, which would be indicated by expansion in lake area, glacier meltwater could be saved in a stable reservoir.

Erosion response to anthropogenic activity and climatic changes during the Holocene: case studies in northwestern China and southern Norway

Soil erosion assessment and prediction play critical roles in addressing problems associated with erosion control or soil conservation. The past dynamics of soil erosion can provide valuable information for us to understand the relations of soil erosion to environmental change and anthropogenic activity. The present paper has compared Holocene climatic changes in northwestern China with those in southern Norway, and investigated the past dynamics of erosion activity during the Holocene. Modern soil erosion on the Loess Plateau is a combination of the intensive natural erosion and human-induced erosion, the latter being four times greater than the former. Because of global warming and increasing human activities, climate on the Loess Plateau is becoming dryer and more unstable, causing an enhanced erosion problem and water scarcity. In the arctic-alpine region of southern Norway, however, the global warming and regional wetting caused expansion of the largest European ice cap. This has accentuated the erosion in that region, with a higher frequency of avalanches and debris flows.

Response of Lake Environment to Climatic Changes on The Tibetan Plateau,Western China

The large-scale summer monsoon circulations of south Asia makes a strong impact on precipitation in the area of southwestern China including Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and Yun-Gui Plateau.however,the monsoon is both spatially and temporally complex and smaller-scale circulations are forced by a variety of local or regional orographic effects,local or regional land-atmosphere or

Climatic Changes and Their Effect on Wildlife of District Dir Lower, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

Climatic changes and their impact are increasingly evident in Pakistan,especially in the mountainous regions. Mountain ecosystems are consideredto be sensitive indicators of global warming;even slight variationsin temperature can lead to significant shifts in local climate, which can,in turn, drastically affect the natural environment, subsequently alteringpeople’s lifestyle and wildlife habitats. The targeted area for the presentresearch was Lower Dir District, Pakistan. The study gathered the requiredinformation from primary and secondary sources. Secondary dataon temperature and precipitation were obtained from various sources,i.e., local CBO, including WWF Pakistan. Based on information gatheredon climate change and wildlife, a detailed questionnaire was designed.Results showed that no regular pattern of the increase was found in temperaturefrom 2010 to 2018;the same was noticed in the rainfall decreasepattern. Results also showed that the leading causes behind climaticchanges are an increase in greenhouse gases due to pollution by industries,vehicles, crushing plants, deforestation, and some natural phenomenasuch as floods. The study showed that more than 80% of the respondentsagreed that climatic effects have a significant impact on wildlife, i.e.,the existence of wildlife falls in danger due to climatic changes as it maylead to habitat change, making it difficult for the survival and adaptationof the wildlife. Hence, in consequence, it leads to migration, low growthrate, an increase in morbidity and mortality rate, and finally leading to theextinction of the species or population. It is concluded from the study thatpeople are severely noticing the climatic change and its leading causesare greenhouse gases and deforestation. To control climatic changes andwildlife extinction, we need an appropriate policy for forest conservation,wildlife conservation, prevent hunting, industrial pollution control, vehiclepollution control, increase in plantation, awareness of policy for thecontrol of climatic changes, etc.

Assessment of rehabilitation strategies for lakes affected by anthropogenic and climatic changes: A case study of the Urmia Lake, Iran

Over the last three decades,more than half of the world's large lakes and wetlands have experienced significant shrinkage,primarily due to climate change and extensive water consumption for agriculture and other human needs.The desiccation of lakes leads to severe environmental,economic,and social repercussions.Urmia Lake,located in northwestern Iran and representing a vital natural ecosystem,has experienced a volume reduction of over 90.0%.Our research evaluated diverse water management strategies within the Urmia Lake basin and prospects of inter-basin water transfers.This study focused on strategies to safeguard the environmental water rights of the Urmia Lake by utilizing the modeling and simulating(MODSIM)model.The model simulated changes in the lake's water volume under various scenarios.These included diverting water from incoming rivers,cutting agricultural water use by 40.0%,releasing dam water in non-agricultural seasons,treated wastewater utilization,and inter-basin transfers.Analytical hierarchy process(AHP)was utilized to analyze the simulation results.Expert opinions with AHP analysis,acted as a multi-criteria decision-making tool to evaluate the simulation and determine the optimal water supply source priority for the Urmia Lake.Our findings underscore the critical importance of reducing agricultural water consumption as the foremost step in preserving the lake.Following this,inter-basin water transfers are suggested,with a detailed consideration of the inherent challenges and limitations faced by the source watersheds.It is imperative to conduct assessments on the impacts of these transfers on the downstream users and the potential environmental risks,advocating for a diplomatic and cooperative approach with adjacent country.This study also aims to forecast the volumes of water that can be transferred under different climatic conditions—drought,normal,and wet years—to inform strategic water management planning for the Urmia Lake.According to our projection,implementing the strategic scenarios outlined could significantly augment the lake's level and volume,potentially by 3.57×109–9.38×109 m3 over the coming 10 a and 3.57×109–10.70×109 m3 in the subsequent 15 a.

Climate Changes and Sustainability

Climate change is the phrase used to describe long-term changes in temperatures and weather patterns. Changes in the atmosphere and their interactions with diverse geologic, chemical, biological, and geographic variables are the main contributors to this cyclical adjustment of the Earth’s climate. Such changes may be induced purposefully, because of burning fossil fuels, clearing forests, and raising animals, or they may be natural, brought on by significant volcanic eruptions or variations in the sun’s activity. By significantly increasing the amount of greenhouse gases already in the atmosphere, this heightens the greenhouse effect and contributes to global warming. This work includes several additional theoretical and practical explanations of sustainable development. The theoretical work encompasses hundreds of researches that identify requirements for how development routes might satisfy sustainable development (SD) criteria using economic theory, complex systems approach, ecological science, and other techniques. The agreements made by the Parties in various nations across the world will consider a wide range of perspectives about what would be considered undesirable effects on the environment, the climate system, sustainability, economic growth, or food production.

Towards understanding the environmental and climatic changes and its contribution to the spread of wildfires in Ghana using remote sensing tools and machine learning (Google Earth Engine)

Data processing and climate characterisation to study its impact is becoming difficult due to insufficient and unavailable data,especially in developing countries.Understanding climate’s impact on burnt areas in Ghana(Guinea-savannah(GSZ)and Forest-savannah Mosaic zones(FSZ))leads us to opt for machine learning.Through Google Earth Engine(GEE),rainfall(PR),maximum temperature(Tmax),minimum temperature(Tmin),average temperature(Tmean),Palmer Drought Severity Index(PDSI),relative humidity(RH),wind speed(WS),soil moisture(SM),actual evapotranspiration(ETA)and reference evapotranspiration(ETR)have been acquired through CHIRPS(Climate Hazards group Infrared Precipitation with Stations),FLDAS dataset(Famine Early Warning Systems Network(FEWS NET)Land Data Assimilation System)and TerraClimate platform from 1991 to 2021.The objective is to analyse the link and the contribution of climatic and environmental parameters on wildfire spread in GSZ and FSZ in Ghana.Variables were analysed(area burnt and the number of activefires)through Spearman correlation and the cross-correlation function(CCF)(2001 to 2021).The tests(Mann-Kendall and Sens’s slope trend test,Pettitt test and the Lee and Heghinian test)showed the overall decrease in rainfall and increase in temperature respectively(-0.1 mm;+0.8℃)in GSZ and(-0.9 mm;+0.3℃)in FSZ.In terms of impact,PR,ETR,FDI,Tmean,Tmax,Tmin,RH,ETA and SM contribute tofire spread.Through the codes developed,researchers and decision-makers could update them at different times easily to monitor climate variability and its impact onfires.

Precipitation and anthropogenic activities regulate the changes of NDVI in Zhegucuo Valley on the southern Tibetan Plateau

Whether climate change or anthropogenic activities play a more pivotal role in regulating vegetation growth on the Tibetan Plateau is still controversial.A better understanding on grassland changes at a fine scale may provide important guidance for local government policy and grassland management.Using two of the most reliable satellite NDVI products(MODIS NDVI and SPOT NDVI),we evaluated the dynamic of grasslands in the Zhegucuo valley on the southern Tibetan Plateau from 2000 to 2020,and analyzed its driving factors and relative influences of climate change and anthropogenic activities.Here,the key indicators of climate change were assumed to be precipitation and temperature.The main results were:(1)the grassland NDVI in Zhegucuo valley did not reflect a significant temporal change during the last 21 years.The variation of precipitation during the early growing season(GSP)resembled that of NDVI,and the GSP was positively correlated with NDVI.At the pixel level,the partial correlation analysis showed that 37.79%of the pixels depicted a positive relationship between GSP and NDVI,while 11.32%of the pixels showed a negative relationship between temperature during the early growing season(GST)and NDVI.(2)In view of the spatial distribution,the areas mainly controlled by GSP were generally distributed in the southern part,while those affected by GST stood in the eastern part,mainly around the Zhegucuo lake where most population in Cuomei County settled down.(3)Decreasing NDVI trends were mainly occurred in alpine steppe at lower elevations rather than alpine meadow at higher elevations.(4)The residual trend(RESTREND)analysis further indicated that the anthropogenic activities played a more pivotal role in regulating the annual changes of NDVI rather than climate factors in this area.Future studies should pay more attention on climate extremes rather than the simple temporal trends.Also,the influence of human activities on alpine grassland needs to be accessed and fully considered in future sustainable management.

Spatiotemporal changes of gross primary productivity and its response to drought in the Mongolian Plateau under climate change

Gross primary productivity(GPP)of vegetation is an important constituent of the terrestrial carbon sinks and is significantly influenced by drought.Understanding the impact of droughts on different types of vegetation GPP provides insight into the spatiotemporal variation of terrestrial carbon sinks,aiding efforts to mitigate the detrimental effects of climate change.In this study,we utilized the precipitation and temperature data from the Climatic Research Unit,the standardized precipitation evapotranspiration index(SPEI),the standardized precipitation index(SPI),and the simulated vegetation GPP using the eddy covariance-light use efficiency(EC-LUE)model to analyze the spatiotemporal change of GPP and its response to different drought indices in the Mongolian Plateau during 1982-2018.The main findings indicated that vegetation GPP decreased in 50.53% of the plateau,mainly in its northern and northeastern parts,while it increased in the remaining 49.47%area.Specifically,meadow steppe(78.92%)and deciduous forest(79.46%)witnessed a significant decrease in vegetation GPP,while alpine steppe(75.08%),cropland(76.27%),and sandy vegetation(87.88%)recovered well.Warming aridification areas accounted for 71.39% of the affected areas,while 28.53% of the areas underwent severe aridification,mainly located in the south and central regions.Notably,the warming aridification areas of desert steppe(92.68%)and sandy vegetation(90.24%)were significant.Climate warming was found to amplify the sensitivity of coniferous forest,deciduous forest,meadow steppe,and alpine steppe GPP to drought.Additionally,the drought sensitivity of vegetation GPP in the Mongolian Plateau gradually decreased as altitude increased.The cumulative effect of drought on vegetation GPP persisted for 3.00-8.00 months.The findings of this study will improve the understanding of how drought influences vegetation in arid and semi-arid areas.

The Global Energy and Water Exchanges(GEWEX)Project in Central Asia:The Case for a Regional Hydroclimate Project

Central Asia consists of the former Soviet Republics,Kazakhstan,Kyrgyz Republic,Tajikistan,Turkmenistan,and Uzbekistan.The region’s climate is continental,mostly semi-arid to arid.Agriculture is a significant part of the region’s economy.By its nature of intensive water use,agriculture is extremely vulnerable to climate change.Population growth and irrigation development have significantly increased the demand for water in the region.Major climate change issues include melting glaciers and a shrinking snowpack,which are the foundation of the region’s water resources,and a changing precipitation regime.Most glaciers are located in Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan,leading to transboundary water resource issues.Summer already has extremely high temperatures.Analyses indicate that Central Asia has been warming and precipitation might be increasing.The warming is expected to increase,but its spatial and temporal distribution depends upon specific global scenarios.Projections of future precipitation show significant uncertainties in type,amount,and distribution.Regional Hydroclimate Projects(RHPs)are an approach to studying these issues.Initial steps to develop an RHP began in 2021 with a widely distributed online survey about these climate issues.It was followed up with an online workshop and then,in 2023,an in-person workshop,held in Tashkent,Uzbekistan.Priorities for the Global Energy and Water Exchanges(GEWEX)project for the region include both observations and modeling,as well as development of better and additional precipitation observations,all of which are topics for the next workshop.A well-designed RHP should lead to reductions in critical climate uncertainties in policy-relevant timeframes that can influence decisions on necessary investments in climate adaptation.

Spatiotemporal Changes of Snow Depth in Western Jilin,China from 1987 to 2018

Seasonal snow cover is a key global climate and hydrological system component drawing considerable attention due to glob-al warming conditions.However,the spatiotemporal snow cover patterns are challenging in western Jilin,China due to natural condi-tions and sparse observation.Hence,this study investigated the spatiotemporal patterns of snow cover using fine-resolution passive mi-crowave(PMW)snow depth(SD)data from 1987 to 2018,and revealed the potential influence of climate factors on SD variations.The results indicated that the interannual range of SD was between 2.90 cm and 9.60 cm during the snowy winter seasons and the annual mean SD showed a slightly increasing trend(P>0.05)at a rate of 0.009 cm/yr.In snowmelt periods,the snow cover contributed to an increase in volumetric soil water,and the change in SD was significantly affected by air temperature.The correlation between SD and air temperature was negative,while the correlation between SD and precipitation was positive during December and March.In March,the correlation coefficient exceeded 0.5 in Zhenlai,Da’an,Qianan,and Qianguo counties.However,the SD and precipitation were neg-atively correlated over western Jilin in October,and several subregions presented a negative correlation between SD and precipitation in November and April.

Environmental changes affect picoplanktonic composition in Antarctic Peninsula ponds

Antarctic Peninsula is experiencing one of the largest global warming events worldwide.Shallow water bodies generated by the melting of snow in summer are numerous,and they might act as sentinels of climate change due to their rapid response and ability to integrate catchment information.Shifts in climate can influence the structure of microbial communities which dominate these freshwaters ecosystems.Here,we characterize three ponds at Cierva Point(Antarctic Peninsula)by examining their physico-chemical and morphological characteristics and we explored how different factors modify the structure of the microbial community.We studied the abundance and biomass of heterotrophic bacteria,picocyanobacteria and picoeukaryote algae during January and February of two consecutive summers(2017 and 2018).We found that ponds had different limnological characteristics,due to their location,geomorphological features and presence of the surrounding flora and fauna.Physico-chemical parameters as well as microbial community differed between ponds,months and years.In 2017,most ponds were oligo to mesotrophic states.The larger accumulated rainfall(as a result of environmental changes on the Antarctic Peninsula)during 2018,particularly in February,causes nutrient runoff into water bodies.This affects those ponds with the highest seabird circulation,such as gentoo penguin,increasing eutrophication.As a result,picoplanktonic abundances were higher,and the community structure shifts to a largely heterotrophic bacteria dominated one.These results suggest that these communities could act as sentinels to environmental changes,anticipating a future with mostly hypertrophic ponds.

Vegetation Restoration in Response to Climatic and Anthropogenic Changes in the Loess Plateau, China

A thorough understanding of the vegetation succession in relation to both climatic changes and anthropogenic activities is vital for the formulation of adaptation strategies that address potential ecosystem challenges.Various climatic factors such as temperature,precipitation,and solar radiation,as well as anthropogenic factors such as ecological engineering and population migration,will affect the conditions for vegetation.However,the relationships among various factors remain unclear and the response of vegetation to climate change and anthropogenic activities in the Loess Plateau of China has not been well established.This study investigated the spatio-temporal characteristics and relationships between vegetation coverage and climatic factors in the Loess Plateau for the period of 1985–2015.Further analysis separated the anthropogenic and climatic factors on vegetation succession based on residual analysis.The results showed that the normalized difference vegetation index(NDVI)followed a significant upward trend with annual change rates of 0.15%during 1985–2015.The trend of human-induced NDVI increase was consistent with the spatial distribution of increasing forest areas in the eastern part of the Loess Plateau.Eco-restoration projects were the main driving factors that promoted vegetation coverage on the Loess Plateau.Furthermore,these results demonstrated that migrants to cities in the Loess Plateau could relieve ecological pressures and promote vegetation restoration.Therefore,the government should strive to increase population mobility and restore vegetation to sustain this particularly fragile ecological environment.

Research Advances of Impacts of Climate Changes on Crop Climatic Adaptability

Agriculture received most direct influences from climate changes. Because of climate changes, agricultural climate resources changed and thus influenced climate adaptability of agricultural products. The growth and output of crops were finally affected. The calculation method and application of agricultural products in recent years were summarized. Several questions about the response of agricultural crops to climate elements were proposed for attention.

Climatic change in Western North America during the last 15,000 years:The role of changes in the relative strengths of air masses in producing the changing climates

In the Cordillera of western North America, the influence of the Pacific Interdecadal Oscillation only affects coastal areas west of the Coast Range and the lowlands of western and southern Alaska. The rest of the area is subject to a climate controlled by the relative strengths of three distinct air masses, viz., the cold cA/cP air that is dominant in winter, the mP air bringing cool moist air over the mountains throughout the year, and the dry hot cT air from the deserts of the southwestern United States. The Arctic Front marks the boundary between the cA/cP air mass and the other two. Changes in the relative strengths of these air masses appear to explain the climatic changes documented throughout the region. Thus, in the last 30 years, the average position of the Arctic Front has moved north from about 53°N to 58°N, causing the warming in northern British Columbia and cooling south of Calgary, Alberta. This concept of changing positions of the air masses also appears to explain the mechanism behind the past climatic changes in this region. During the last Neoglacial event （c.1400-1900 A.D.）, it appears that the cA/cP air mass had strengthened enough to push the Arctic Front south of the 49th parallel. Incursions of mP air increased with localized areas of short-term heavy snowfalls resulting in small-scale advances of glaciers in these regions. This accounts for the variability in timing and extent of these glacial advances, while the resulting increased Chinook activity produced the development of a sand sea between Medicine Hat and Regina on the southern Prairies. The cT air mass was relatively weak, permitting these changes. During the maximum of the Altithermal/Hysithermal warm event （6,000 years B.P.）, the Arctic Front had retreated into the southern Yukon Territory as the cT air mass became stronger. The mP air could not move inland as easily, resulting in drier climates across the region. Prairie plants mi- grated into the southern Yukon Territory, and land snails from the eastern United States were able to migrate up the Saskatchewan River system as far as Lake Louise, Alberta. On the southern Prairies, the many small sloughs and lakes dried up. During the maximum of the Late Wisconsin Glacial event （15,000 years B.P.）, the Arctic Front had moved south to the vicinity of 30°N, while there had been a southward movement of the Zone of Intertropical Convergence from the equator to about 10°S. The mP air was also very strong and dumped enormous quantities of snow in the glaciated Canadian Cordillera, but it does not appear to have moved south any distance into the northern United States, witness the limited glaciation and widespread permafrost that developed there. Instead, there is evidence for buffering of the climatic changes in the closed basins in the northern Cordillera of the contiguous United States. The source of the cT air mass had moved south into the northern part of South America, permitting an exchange of savannah biota between the two continents. An extensive area of white dune sands inundated both savannah and forest along the inland hills in Guyana. This parallels the massive changes in African climatology during the last Ice Age （Fairbridge, 1964）. If these changes occurred each time there was a major glaciation in the Northern Hemisphere, this would explain the movement of biota from all terrestrial environments between the two American continents in the last 2 million years. A similar northward movement of climatic belts occurred in South America, with the cA air from Antarctica expanding northwards into southern Argentina and Chili. However paucity of data and the potential effects of El Ni o and the Southern Oscillation make it difficult toprovide details of the changes there in the present state of knowledge. This technique of studying the mechanisms of present-day climatic changes and applying the results to past climatic events has considerable potential for elucidating past climatic changes elsewhere in continental regions. This may prove particularly valuable in studying the Siberian anticyclone that is the main cause of the distribution of permafrost, but this will need international cooperation to be successful.

Using remote sensing technology to monitor salt lake changes caused by climate change and melting glaciers:insights from Zabuye Salt Lake in Xizang

Zabuye Salt Lake(ZSL)in Xizang is the only saline lake in the world with natural crystalline lithium carbonate.As it is an important lithium production base in China,any changes of this lake are concerning.Global climate change(CC)has affected the hydrological conditions of glaciers,lakes,and ecosystems in the Tibetan Plateau(TP).With the aim of monitoring dynamic hydrological changes in ZSL and Lunggar Glaciers(LG)to identify factors governing lake changes,and to estimate the potential damage to grasslands and salt pans,Landsat remote sensing(RS)and meteorological data were used to do a series of experiments and analysis.Firstly,according to the spectral characteristics(SC),salt lake,glaciers,grasslands,and salt pans around the salt lake were extracted by band calculation(BC).Secondly,basin and water areas of the expanded lake were estimated using a shuttle radar topography mission(SRTM)digital elevation model(DEM).Thirdly,comprehensive analyses of lake and glacier area changes,and regional meteorological factors(annual average temperature,annual precipitation,and evaporation)were performed,and the results show that ZSL expanded at a rate of 5.28 km^(2)/a,it is likely to continue expanding.Expansion was closely related to the large-scale melting of a glacier caused by rising temperatures.Continued lake expansion(LE)will exert different effects on surrounding grasslands and salt pans,7.84 km^(2)of grassland and 2.7 km^(2)of salt pan will be submerged with every meter of water increase in the lake.Similar prediction methods was used to monitor other lakes on the TP.Mami Co,Selin Co,and Chaerhan salt lakes all expanded at different rates,and may potentially cause different levels of potential harm to surrounding grasslands and roads.Our study contributes to salt lake research and demonstrates the superiority of RS technology for monitoring saline lakes.

Changes in Climate Factors and Their Impacts on Wind Erosion Climatic Erosivity in Farming-pastoral Zone of Northern China

Climate change can affect wind erosion power and hence induce changes in wind erosion rates.In this study,the wind erosion climate factor(C-factor),proposed by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,was used to assess the impact of changes in climate on wind erosion climatic erosivity.The Mann-Kendall test was employed to detect trends in the C-factor during the period of 1961–2017 in the farming-pastoral zone of northern China.Sensitivity analysis was used to determine the sensitivity of the C-factor to changes in key climate factors.Furthermore,a comparison of the contributions of different climate factors was carried out to understand their impact on changes in the C-factor.The results indicated that most of the surveyed region exhibited decreasing trends in wind speed at a confidence level of 90%,while maximum and minimum temperatures showed increasing trends throughout the study area.As a consequence of decreasing wind speed,the annual C-factor exhibited significant decreasing trends,with a mean slope of–0.58/yr.Seasonal analysis revealed that in most regions,the changes in the C-factor had significant decreasing trends in spring,winter,and autumn,while in more than two-thirds of the study area,no significant change trends in the C-factor were detected in summer at a confidence level of 90%.Sensitivity analysis showed that the C-factor was most sensitive to wind speed,and that the sensitivity coefficients from July to September were much higher than those in other months.Contribution analysis revealed that,for most stations,wind speed(with greater values of sensitivity coefficients)was the dominant factor in the change of C-factor,while for some stations,the minimum temperature made the most contribution to the C-factor’s change due to its dramatic changes during the study period.Although the minimum temperature sensitivity coefficient was the lowest of all the sensitivity coefficients,it is urgent to evaluate the expected impact of minimum temperature due to its possible changes in the future.