Effect of selected fungi on the reduction of gossypol levels and nutritional value during solid substrate fermentation of cottonseed meal

The objective of this work was to investigate the effect of six individual strains of fungi on the reduction of gossypol levels and nutritional value during solid substrate fen＇aentation of cottonseed meal （CSM）. Six groups of disinfected CSM substrate were incubated for 48 h after inoculation with either of the fungi C. capsuligena ZD- 1, C. tropicalis ZD-3, S. cerevisae ZD-5, A. terricola ZD-6, A. oryzae ZD-7, or A. niger ZD-8. One not inoculated group （substrate） was used as a control. Levels of initial and final free gossypol （FG）, crude protein （CP）, amino acids （AA） and in vitro digestibility were assayed. The experiment was done in triplicate. The experimental results indicated that microbial fermentation could greatly decrease （P〈0.05） FG levels in CSM. The detoxification efficiency differed between the species of microorganisms applied. From the perspective of reducing CSM potential toxicity, C. tropicalis ZD-3 was most successful followed by S. cerevisae ZD-5 and A. niger ZD-8. They could reduce FG levels of CSM to 29.8, 63.07 and 81.50 mg/kg based on DM （dry matter）, respectively, and their detoxification rates were 94.57%, 88.51% and 85.16%, respectively. If crude protein, amino acids content and their in vitro digestibility were also taken into account, Aniger ZD-8 may be the best choice. The CP content of CSM substrate fermented by C. tropicalis ZD-3 and A. niger ZD-8 were improved by 10.76% and 22.24%; the TAA （total amino acids） contents were increased by 7.06% and 11.46%, and the EAA （essential amino acids） were raised by 7.77% and 12.64%, respectively. Especially, the levels of methionine, lysine and threonine were improved greatly （P〈0.05）. The in vitro CP digestibility of CSM fermented by C. tropicalis ZD-3 and A. niger ZD-8 was improved by 13.42% and 18.22%, the TAA were increased by 17.75% and 22.88%, and the EAA by 16.61% and 21.01%, respectively. In addition, the in vitro digestibility of methionine, lysine and threonine was also improved greatly （P〈0.05）.

Effect of dietary cottonseed meal on growth performance, physiological response, and gossypol accumulation in preadult grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idellus

Cottonseed meal(CM) was used at up to 36.95% content in the diet(replacing 60% of dietary fish meal protein) without any negative effects on growth performance of pre-adult grass carp(initial body weight,761 g) under outdoor conditions.A culture trial was conducted in net cages installed in a large concrete pond.Seven isonitrogenous and isoenergetic diets containing a gradient of CM concentrations(0,12.2%,24.4%,36.6%,48.8%,54.8%,and 61.0%) as replacement for dietary fish meal protein(0,20%,40%,60%,80%,90%,and 100%) were formulated.Dietary non-resistant starch(from maize) was inverse to dietary CM.Growth performance and feed utilization of fish fed the diets containing CM replacing 0-40% fishmeal protein were not affected after the 6-week feeding trial.Accumulation of hepatopancreatic total gossypol in the hepatopancreas was significantly correlated with free gossypol content in the diets(HTG=88.6+1.5×DFG,R^2=0.89,P<0.05).Intestinal a-amylase and γ-glutamyl transpeptidase activities rose along with increasing dietary CM level.The structure of the mid-intestinal tissues and the ultrastructure of the enterocyte microvilli were normal when dietary CM was <36.6%(60% protein replacement).Increasing dietary CM content increased serum alanine aminotransferase levels but decreased serum alkaline phosphatase,cholesterol,high-density lipoprotein cholesterol,low-density lipoprotein cholesterol,triglycerides,and albumin(P<0.05).

Mechanism of Solid State Fermentation in Reducing Free Gossypol in Cottonseed Meal and the Effects on the Growth of Broiler Chickens

[Objective] This study aims to reduce the free gossypol(FG) and improve utilization rate of cottonseed meal(CSM) by solid state fermentation(SSF). [Method]Bacillus subtilis GJ00141 and Saccharomyces cerevisiae GJ00079 were applied for the SSF and the optimal carbon source, nitrogen source, inorganic salt, moisture content, inoculum level, fermentation temperature, and fermentation time were investigated. The detoxifying effects of different products of GJ00141 were examined with gossypol as substrate. A total of 90 one-day-old broilers were randomized into group A [control, basal diet with 36% soybean meal(SM)], group B(basal diet with 18% SM and 18% CSM), and group C [basal diet with 18% SM and 18% fermented CSM(FCSM)] and thereby the influence of FCSM on the growth of broilers was explored. [Results] The maximum reduction rate(59%) of FG was achieved under the following fermentation conditions: solid medium composed of 96% CSM, 1%glucose, 1% ammonium sulfate, and 2% corn grits, 45% moisture content, 20%inoculum, fermentation at 30 °C for 60 h. Both the viable and inactivated cells of GJ00141 can reduce the content of gossypol, but the reduction rates were only about 20% after 72 h of incubation. Cellular contents and supernatant demonstrated strong detoxifying activity, which achieved the reduction rates of about 95% after 48 h, and the removal was free from the influence of proteinase K, heat, or EDTA. In the 42 d feeding experiment on broilers, the ratios of feed to gain were insignificantly different between the group C and group A. [Conclusion] This method achieved high rate of removing FG in CSM. The reason was the likelihood that the stable compounds in the cellular contents and supernatant of GJ00141 adsorb or bind to FG. Broilers grew well with the FCSM. Thus, it was an efficient detoxifying method for CSM.

Optimization of Cottonseed Meal De-gossypol Process by Extrusion via Genetic Algorithm Based on Artificial Neural Network

[ Objective] The paper aimed to optimize cottonseed meal de-gossypol process by extrusion. [ Method ] The artificial neural network （ANN） was used to stimulate the degradation of free gossypol in cottonseed meal by extrusion process, and a three-layer back propagation neural network was established to predict the degradation of free gossypol. [ Result] The result of 10-fold cross validation showed that the ANN with the training function as traingdx at hidden layer with eight neurons gave the smallest mean square error （MSE）. ANN predicted results were very close to the experimental results with correlation coefficient （R2 ） of 0.994 1 and RMSE of 0.497 1. A genetic algorithm （GA） based on the established neural network model was also used for optimizing de-gossypol process. The re- sults of GA showed that the optimal conditions of de-gossypol were puffing temperature 131℃, water ratio 51% , rotational speed 158 r/rain, and feeding speed 136 kg/h, while under this condition the degradation rate of free gossypol was 90.50%, which was close to the predicted result of CA with the small average relative er- ror of 1.38%. [ Conclusion] These results suggested that the GA based on a neural network model might be an excellent tool for optimizing cottonseed meal de-gos- sypol process.

Effects of Cottonseed Meal on Production Performance and Egg Quality of Hisex Laying Hens

[Objective]In order to research on effect of different content of cottonseed meals on production performance and egg quality of Hisex laying hens. [Methods]120 Hisex laying hens of 37 weeks old are chosen,randomly divided into four groups and three repetitions are set in each group,there are 10 hens in each repetition. Group I is the control group,II,III and IV are experimental groups. Cottonseed meal contents are respectively 5%,10% and 15%,with test cycle of 10 weeks,effects of different cottonseed meal dosages on Hisex laying hens production performance and egg quality are observed. [Results]When the diet is added with 5% to 15% of cottonseed meal,the average laying rate,average egg weight and feed-gain ratio all show downward trends when compared with that of the control group,but with no significant difference（ P 〉 0. 05）; eggshell strength,eggshell thickness,Haugh unit,egg shape index all show no significant difference（ P 〉0. 05）,with the increasement of cottonseed meal,the color of egg yolk got brighter,egg yolk color of 15% added group increased by 12%,show a significant difference with that of control group（ P 〈0. 05）. [Conclusion]When the feed was added with 15% cottonseed meals,it has an unconspicuous effect on laying performance and egg quality of Hisex laying hens,but whether it had an effect on animal health and food safety or not,a further systematic research is needed.

The Effect of Glandless Cottonseed Meal Content and Process Parameters on the Functional Properties of Snacks during Extrusion Cooking

The results of the present study indicate that glandless cottonseed meal (CSM) can be incorporated in extruded corn flour snacks at a 10% content level, which increases snack protein content to 12.8% and reduce fat content to 6.2%. To improve snacks’ nutritional quality, CSM and corn flour were extruded using a simple screw extruder. An expansion index (EI) ranging of 1.2 - 4.7 was obtained. Penetration force (PF) was 7 - 9 times harder than other extruded products. High extrusion temperature and high CSM concentrations decreased (p p p< 0.05) extrudates’ water solubility index. Extrusion conditions used showed a 68.5% starch gelatinization, and a starch availability of more than 97%, which explains the high expansion index obtained.

Effect of Extrusion Temperature on Free Gossypol and Nutritional Components of Cottonseed Meal

[ Objective] The paper aimed to study effects of extrusion temperature on free gossypol and nutritional components of cottonseed meal. [ Method ] Dif- ferent extrusion temperatures （90, 100, 110, 120 and 130℃ ） were designed, and contents of free gossypol and nutritional components in cottonseed meal were de- termined. [ Result] The optimal temperature for extrusion of cottonseed meal was 120℃, the degradation rate of free gossypol no longer increased with the increas- ing temperature when the temperature exceeded 120℃. The nitrogen solvable index （NSI） in cottonseed meal reduced quickly with the increase of extrusion temper- ature, and the contents of crude fiber, available lysine and total lysine in cottonseed meal decreased significantly, but the contents of total amino acids and essential amino acid reached maximums at the extrusion temperature of 120℃. The content of branched-chain amino acids also reached a maximum at 120℃. [ Conclusion] The extrusion temperature of 120℃ was preferred for lowering free gossypol significantly when maintaining higher nutritional value of cottonseed meal. The paper provided a certain technical basis for extrusion processing of cottonseed meal.

Nutrition Regulation of Dairy Cows based on Extruded Cottonseed Meal

[Objective]The paper was to study the effects of extruded cottonseed meal on the nutrition of dairy cows.[Method]Holstein cows were selected for feeding and milk production test.[Result]Extruded cottonseed meal could substitute soybean meal,and there was no significant difference in milk yield and butter-fat percentage.Extruded cottonseed meal could increase milk yield when substituting corn germ meal.In addition,the health of diary cow had not been affected.[Conclusion]Extruded cottonseed meal could guarantee protein nutrition,increase milk yield,reduce feed cost and improve economic benefit of dairy cows when substituting soybean meal and corn germ meal.

Research progress on cottonseed meal as a protein source in pig nutrition:An updated review

At a global level,the supply of protein sources is insufficient to support the current magnitude of pig production.Moreover,given the exorbitant expense of conventional protein feed options like soybean meal and fish meal,it becomes imperative to promptly explore alternative sources of protein feed for the sustainable advancement of the pig industry.Cottonseed meal,a by-product from the extraction of cottonseed oil,exhibits significant potential as a protein source for pig feed owing to its high protein content,high yield,low cost,well-balanced amino acid composition,and sufficient accessibility.However,cottonseed meal possesses several anti-nutritional factors,especially gossypol,which adversely affect growth and reproductive performance,resulting in the limited utilization of cottonseed meal in pig feed.To maximize the benefits of cottonseed meal and promote its application in pig production,it is imperative to acquire comprehensive knowledge regarding its nutritional value and current utilization.In this review,we initially presented a summary of the nutritional values of cottonseed meal,primary anti-nutritional factors,and effective approaches for improving its utilization as a protein source feed.Subsequently,we comprehensively summarized the latest research progress of cottonseed meal application in pig nutrition over the past decade.The outcome of this review serves as a theoretical foundation and practical guidance for the research and application of cottonseed meal in pig nutrition and promotes the reduction of soybean meal utilization in the pig industry.

Tissue lipid metabolism and hepatic metabolomic profiling in response to supplementation of fermented cottonseed meal in the diets of broiler chickens

This study investigated the effects of fermented cottonseed meal（FCSM） on lipid metabolites, lipid metabolism-related gene expression in liver tissues and abdominal adipose tissues, and hepatic metabolomic profiling in broiler chickens. One hundred and eighty 21-d-old broiler chickens were randomly divided into three diet groups with six replicates of 10 birds in each group. The three diets consisted of a control diet supplemented with unfermented cottonseed meal, an experimental diet of cottonseed meal fermented by Candida tropicalis, and a second experimental diet of cottonseed meal fermented by C. tropicalis plus Saccharomyces cerevisae. The results showed that FCSM intake significantly decreased the levels of abdominal fat and hepatic triglycerides（P〈0.05 for both）. Dietary FCSM supplementation down-regulated the m RNA expression of fatty acid synthase and acetyl Co A carboxylase in liver tissues and the lipoprotein lipase expression in abdominal fat tissues（P〈0.05 for both）. FCSM intake resulted in significant metabolic changes of multiple pathways in the liver involving the tricarboxylic acid cycle, synthesis of fatty acids, and the metabolism of glycerolipid and amino acids. These findings indicated that FCSM regulated lipid metabolism by increasing or decreasing the expression of the lipid-related gene and by altering multiple endogenous metabolites. Lipid metabolism regulation is a complex process, this discovery provided new essential information about the effects of FCSM diets in broiler chickens and demonstrated the great potential of nutrimetabolomics in researching complex nutrients added to animal diets.

Impact of numerous larval diets on the biology of pink bollworm Pectinophora gossypiella(Saunders)(Lepidoptera:Gelechiidae)under laboratory conditions

Background Pink bollworm,Pectinophora gossypiella(Saunders)(Lepidoptera:Gelechiidae)has become a poten-tial pest of cotton by causing substantial yield losses around the world including Pakistan.Keeping in view the facts like limited research investigations,unavailability,and high cost of artificial diet’s constituents and their premixes,the present research investigations on the dietary aspect of P.gossypiella were conducted.The larvae of P.gossypiella were reared on different diets that were prepared using indigenous elements.The standard/laboratory diet com-prised of wheat germ meal 34.5 g,casein 30.0 g,agar–agar 20.0 g,sucrose 10.0 g,brewer’s yeast 5.0 g,α-cellulose 1.0 g,potassium-sorbate1.5 g,niplagin 0.5 g,decavitamin 0.01 g,choline-chloride 0.06 g,maize-oil 3.30 g,honey 2.0 g,and water 730.0 mL.Alternatives to cotton bolls and wheat germ meal were okra seed sprouts,okra fruit,cottonseed meal,and okra seed meals,which were included in the study to introduce an efficient and economic mass-rearing system.Results The larval development completed in 19.68d±0.05 d with a weight of 20.18mg±0.20 mg at the fourth instar fed on the cottonseed meal-based diet instead of wheat germ meal based diet.On the same diet,84.00%±4.00%,17.24 mg±0.03 mg,and 7.76d±0.06 d were recorded as pupae formation,pupal weight,and pupal duration,respectively.Adult emergence,76.00%±1.00%was recorded from pupae collected from larvae raised on cottonseed meal-based diet.These male and female moths lived for 40.25d±0.10 d,and 44.34d±0.11 d,respectively.Females deposited 21.28±0.04 eggs per day with the viability of 65.78%±0.14%.The larval mortal-ity at the fourth instar was 37.20%±1.36%and malformed pupation of 12.00%±1.41%was recorded.Replacement of wheat germ meal with that of local meals(cottonseed and okra seed)in the standard laboratory diet has saved 463.80 to 467.10 PKR with 1.62 to 1.63 cost economic returns,respectively.Conclusion This research is of novel nature as it provides a concise and workable system for the economic and suc-cessful rearing of P.gossypiella under laboratory conditions.

Application of Protein Feed Processed by Microbial Fermentation to Dairy Cow

Methionine （Met） and lysine （Lys） have been reported as the first two limiting amino acids （AA） for maximum milk yield and milk protein production. Supplying these AA may improve microbial protein synthesis and therefore improve milk production without adding excess N to the environment. This observation utilized fermented soybean meal （SBM）, cottonseed meal （CSM）, rapeseed meal （RSM） and corn by Bacillus subtilis 168 and Leuconostoc mesenteroides as core feedstuffs to produce special biological protein feed for dairy cow. The results showed that the milk production, milk protein percentage, milk fat percentage and milk DM percentage of test groups in trial period were significantly more than those of the control group （P〈0.01）, the results showed that adding fermenting protein feed in dairy cow diets could significantly improve milk yield, milk protein and milk fat content. The economic benefits of actual application were analyzed, the group of 0.5% was the best compared with the other groups.

Acid-insoluble ash is a better indigestible marker than chromic oxide to measure apparent total tract digestibility in pigs

The aim of this study was to determine the apparent total tract digestibility(ATTD)of nutrients in cottonseed meal(CSM)and soybean meal(SBM)in simple carbohydrate and more complex wheat-based diets using 2 indigestible markers and total faecal collection.Twenty-five Large White×Landrace boars(57.8 kg)were randomly allocated to either a pure wheat diet,40%CSM or SBM in either a sugar-starch-(1∶1)or wheat-based diet for 18 d.Acid-insoluble ash(AIA)and chromic oxide(Cr2O3)were included in all diets as indigestible markers.Diets were offered(1,800 g/d per pig)in 3 meals/d from d 1 to 11 and 8 meals/d from d 12 to 17.On d 9,the pigs were moved to individual metabolism cages to allow total faecal collection.On d 18,the pigs were fed hourly for 8 h.After the 8th meal,pigs were anaesthetized and digesta sampled from the terminal ileum and rectum before lethal injection.There were no differences between ATTD of nitrogen(N)determined using AIA as a marker and measured by total faecal collection.On the other hand,the ATrD of N of diets containing CSM in sugar-starch-or wheat-based diets and the pure wheat diet determined using Cr2O3 as a marker was less(-3.11%,-4.46%and-6.59%;P<O.001)than that measured by total faecal collection.The ATTD of N determined using AIA as a marker was highly correlated with that measured using total faecal collection(P<0.001;R2=0.95).Similarly,the ATTD of N determined using Cr2O3 as a marker was correlated with that measured using total faecal collection,although the correlation was not quite as strong as using AIA(P<0.001;R2=0.87).Also,the slope of the regression line and the intercept were closer to unity and zero for the relationship when the ATTD of N was determined using AIA compared to Cr2O3 as an indigestible marker.The ATTD of organic and dry matter behaved similarly.These data demonstrate that the basal diet and choice of indigestible marker can substantially influence the ATTD and that the use of AIA as an indigestible marker is more suitable than Cr2O3 in digestibility studies in pigs.