Dynamic Characteristics of the Long Runout Rock-ice Avalanche at High Altitude——A Case from the Zelongnong Basin,Eastern Himalayan Syntaxis,China

Rock-ice avalanches have frequently occurred in the Eastern Himalayan Syntaxis region due to climate change and active tectonic movements.These events commonly trigger catastrophic geohazard chains,including debris flows,river blockages,and floods.This study focuses on the Zelongnong Basin,analyzing the geomorphic and dynamic characteristics of high-altitude disasters.The basin exhibits typical vertical zonation,with disaster sources initiating at elevations exceeding 4000 m and runout distances reaching up to 10 km.The disaster chain movement involves complex dynamic effects,including impact disintegration,soil-rock mixture arching,dynamic erosion,and debris deposition,enhancing understanding of the flow behavior and dynamic characteristics of rock-ice avalanches.The presence of ice significantly increases mobility due to lubrication and frictional melting.In the disaster event of September 10,2020,the maximum flow velocity and thickness reached 40 m/s and 43 m,respectively.Furthermore,continuous deformation of the Zelongnong glacier moraine was observed,with maximum cumulative deformations of 44.68 m in the distance direction and 25.96 m in the azimuth direction from March 25,2022,to August 25,2022.In the future,the risk of rock-ice avalanches in the Eastern Himalayan Syntaxis region will remain extremely high,necessitating a focus on early warning and risk mitigation strategies for such basin disasters.

Structural and Chronological Evidence for the India-Eurasia Collision of the Early Paleocene in the Eastern Himalayan Syntaxis, Namjagbarwa

The eastern Himalayan syntaxis in Namjagbarwa is a high-grade metamorphicterrain formed by the India-Eurasia collision and northward indentation of the Indian continent intoAsia. Right- and left-lateral slip zones were formed by the indentation on the eastern and westernboundaries of the syntaxis respectively. The Dongjug-Mainling fault zone is the main shear zone onthe western boundary. This fault zone is a left-lateral slip belt with a large component ofthrusting. The kinematics of the fault is consistent with the shortening within the syntaxis, andthe slipping history along it represents the indenting process of the syntaxis. The Ar-Archronological study shows that the age of the early deformation in the Dongjug-Mainling fault zoneranges from 62 to 59 Ma. This evidences that the India-Eurasia collision occurred in the earlyPaleocene in the eastern Himalayan syntaxis.

Earthquake swarms near eastern Himalayan Syntaxis along Jiali Fault in Tibet:A seismotectonic appraisal

The seismotectonic characteristics of ten repeated earthquake swarm sequence within a seismic cluster along Jiali Fault in eastern Himalayan Syntaxis(EHS) have been analysed.The swarms are spatially disposed in and around Yigong Lake(a natural lake formed by blocking of Yigong River by landslide) and are characterized by low magnitude,crustal events with low to moderate b values.Ms:mb discriminant functions though indicate anomalous nature of the earthquakes within swarm but are considered as natural events that occurred under condition of high apparent stress and stress gradients.Composite fault plane solutions of selected swarms indicate strike-slip sense of shear on fault planes;solution parameters show low plunging compression and tensional axes along NW-SE and NE-SW respectively with causative fault plane oriented ENE-WSW.dipping steeply towards south or north.The fault plane is in excellent agreement with the disposition and tectonic movement registered by right lateral Jiali Fault.The process of pore pressure perturbation and resultant ’r—t plot’ with modelled diffusivity(D = 0.12 m^2/s) relates the diffusion of pore pressure to seismic sequence in a fractured poro-elastic fluid saturated medium at average crustal depth of 15-20 km.The low diffusivity depicts a highly fractured interconnected medium that is generated due to high stress activity near the eastern syntaxial bent of Himalaya.It is proposed that hydro fracturing with respect to periodic pore pressure variations is responsible for generation of swarms in the region.The fluid pressure generated due to shearing and infiltrations of surface water within dilated seismogenic fault(Jiali Fault) are causative factors.

Estimation of Seismic Landslide Hazard in the Eastern Himalayan Syntaxis Region of Tibetan Plateau

The eastern Himalayan syntaxis is one of the most tectonically active and earthquake-prone regions on Earth where earthquake-induced geological disasters occur frequently and caused great damages. With the planning and construction of Sichuan-Tibet highway, Sichuan-Tibet railway and hydropower development on the Yarlung Zangbo River etc. in recent years, it is very important to evaluate the seismic landslide hazard of this region. In this paper, a seismic landslide hazard map is produced based on seismic geological background analysis and field investigation using Newmark method with 10% PGA exceedance probabilities in future 50 years by considering the influence of river erosion, active faults and seismic amplification for the first time. The results show that the areas prone to seismic landslides are distributed on steep slopes along the drainages and the glacier horns as well as ridges on the mountains. The seismic landslide hazard map produced in this study not only predicts the most prone seismic landslide areas in the future 50 years but also provides a reference for mitigation strategies to reduce the exposure of the new building and planning projects to seismic landslides.

Field investigations and numerical modeling of a giant landslide in the region of Eastern Himalayan Syntaxis:Jiaobunong landslide

Eastern Himalayan Syntaxis(EHS)is a tectonically active region that undergoes continuous geomorphic changes.Large landslides are predominant in this region.A giant landslide called Jiaobunong landslide on the northwestern flank of the EHS were studied and simulated to investigate the formation mechanism,evolutionary process,and failure mechanism of the landside,so that we could better understand the large complex ancient landslides in this region.Field investigation,geological background analyses,and numerical modeling were conducted to reveal the natural and seismic characteristics,as well as dynamic process of the landslide.The results show that the Jiaobunong landslide was the result of long-term geological and geomorphic evolution.Uplift,river incision,weathering,fault creep,glaciation,and earthquakes play key roles in the formation of landslides.Given the huge landslide volume,strong seismicity of the study area,proximity to an active fault,and the need for extra forces to induce landsliding,the Jiaobunong landslide was triggered by a paleo-earthquake.Using numerical simulation based on the discrete element method,the slope dynamic response of the earthquake as well as the mass movement and accumulation process was reproduced.Simulation results showed that the landslide movement experienced four stages:initiation phase(0-5 s),acceleration phase(5-35 s),deceleration phase(35-95 s),and the compaction and self-stabilization stage(after 95 s).The rock mass was disintegrated and experienced strong collisions during the movement.The dammed lake gradually disappeared because of long-term river incision by the overtopping river water.These processes play a vital role in the evolution of landforms in the region of EHS.

Pressure-temperature Evolution of the Metapelites in the Motuo Area, the Eastern Himalayan Syntaxis

The Motuo area is located in the east of the Eastern Himalayan Syntaxis.There outcrops a sequence of high-grade metamorphic rocks,such as metapelites.Petrology and mineralogy data suggest that these rocks have experienced three stages of metamorphism.The prograde metamorphic mineral assemblages （M1） are mineral inclusions （biotite ＋ plagioclase ＋ quartz ± sillimanite ± Fe-Ti oxides） preserved in garnet porphyroblasts,and the peak metamorphic assemblages （M2） are represented by garnet with the lowest Xsps values and the lowest XFe# ratios and the matrix minerals （plagioclase ＋ quartz ± K-feldspar ＋ biotite ＋ muscovite ＋ kyanite ± siilimanite）,whereas the retrograde assemblages （M3） are composed of biotite ＋ plagioclase ＋ quartz symplectites rimming the garnet porphyroblasts.Thermobarometric computation shows that the metamorphic conditions are 562-714℃ at 7.3-7.4 kbar for the M1 stage,661-800℃ at 9.4-11.6 kbar for the M2 stage,and 579-713℃ at 5.5-6.6 kbar for the M3 stage.These rocks are deciphered to have undergone metamorphism characterized by clockwise P-T paths involving nearly isothermal decompression （ITD） segments,which is inferred to be related to the collision of the India and Eurasia plates.

The migration of the crustal deformation peak area in the eastern Himalayan Syntaxis inferred from present-day crustal deformation and morpho-tectonic markers

The present-day Global Positioning System(GPS)velocity field shows that the Indian Plate is not a complete rigid block,as its northeastern corner has been torn off and clockwise rotating relative to the main part.With the updated GPS velocity data,the Euler vector of the northeastern corner of the Indian Plate relative to the stable main plate is deduced as(89.566±0.06°E,26.131±0.05°N,1.34±0.11°/Myr).The peak area of the present-day crustal deformation is located in the Chayu deformation belt with the compressional dilation strain rate over 160 nanostrain/yr.However,the Namche-Barwa Syntaxis with the massive crustal thickening and intense surface erosion is generally considered to be the previous locus of the strongest compressional stress in the Eastern Himalayan Syntaxis over long geological timescales.Thus,there is a discrepancy between the previous and present-day crustal deformation peak areas.We argue the migration of the crustal deformation peak area with a total distance of about 120 km and ascribe it to the variation of stress conditions caused by northeast India’s clockwise rotation.

Upper mantle anisotropy of the eastern Himalayan syntaxis and surrounding regions from shear wave splitting analysis

Polarization analysis of teleseismic data has been used to determine the XKS(SKS,SKKS,and PKS)fast polarization directions and delay times between fast and slow shear waves for 59 seismic stations of both temporary and permanent broadband seismograph networks deployed in the eastern Himalayan syntaxis(EHS)and surrounding regions.The analysis employed both the grid searching method of the minimum tangential energy and stacking analysis methods to develop an image of upper mantle anisotropy in the EHS and surrounding regions using the newly obtained shear wave splitting parameters and previously published results.The fast polarization directions are oriented along a NE-SW azimuth in the EHS.However,within the surrounding regions,the fast directions show a clockwise rotation pattern around the EHS from NE-SW,to E-W,to NW-SE,and then to N-S.In the EHS and surrounding regions,the fast directions of seismic anisotropy determined using shear wave splitting analysis correlate with surficial geological features including major sutures and faults and with the surface deformation fields derived from global positioning system(GPS)data.The coincidence between structural features in the crust,surface deformation fields and mantle anisotropy suggests that the deformation in the crust and lithospheric mantle is mechanically coupled.In the EHS,the coherence between the fast directions and the NE direction of the subduction of the Indian Plate beneath the Tibetan Plateau suggests that the lithospheric deformation is caused mainly by subduction.In the regions surrounding the EHS,we speculate that a westward retreat of the Burma slab could contribute to the curved anisotropy pattern.The Tibetan Plateau is acted upon by a NE-trending force due to the subduction of the Indian Plate,and also affected by a westward drag force due to the westward retreat produced by the eastward subduction of the Burma slab.The two forces contribute to a curved lithospheric deformation that results in the alignment of the upper mantle peridotite lattice parallel to the deformation direction,and thus generates a curved pattern of fast directions around the EHS.