Partial least squares regression for predicting economic loss of vegetables caused by acid rain

To predict the economic loss of crops caused by acid rain,we used partial least squares(PLS) regression to build a model of single dependent variable -the economic loss calculated with the decrease in yield related to the pH value and levels of Ca2+,NH4+,Na+,K+,Mg2+,SO42-,NO3-,and Cl-in acid rain. We selected vegetables which were sensitive to acid rain as the sample crops,and collected 12 groups of data,of which 8 groups were used for modeling and 4 groups for testing. Using the cross validation method to evaluate the performace of this prediction model indicates that the optimum number of principal components was 3,determined by the minimum of prediction residual error sum of squares,and the prediction error of the regression equation ranges from -2.25% to 4.32%. The model predicted that the economic loss of vegetables from acid rain is negatively corrrelated to pH and the concentrations of NH4+,SO42-,NO3-,and Cl-in the rain,and positively correlated to the concentrations of Ca2+,Na+,K+ and Mg2+. The precision of the model may be improved if the non-linearity of original data is addressed.

Assessment of China's economic loss resulting from the degradation of agricultural land in the end of 20th century

Land degradation is a consequence stemming from both natural processes and social economic activities. On the bases of analyzing general situation of agricultural land degradation in China, the monetary estimating methods such as market value method and shadow engineering method were used to quantitatively assess the economic loss resulting from land deterioration. Results showed that the economic loss in 1999 was 326 81 billion RMB Yuan, which accounted for 4 1% of GDP in the same year of China. If taking five items namely farmland conversion, soil erosion, salinization, decline in reservoir functions, and siltation in waterways and, comparing with that in 1992, the percentage of economic loss to GDP has increased by 1 5 in the only 7 years.

Measuring economic loss caused by ecological damages: a case study of China's forest ecosystem in 2005

At present about 60% of ecosystem has been damaged and degraded severely, resulting in enormous ecological loss globally. The essential cause is the irrational utilization of ecosystem by humankind, so it is tire key to changing improper environmental performance of humankind so as to prevent ecosystem from being damaged The quantitative valuation on the loss of ecological damage is an effective tool to guide human eco-environmental performance. In this paper, the concepts related to the valuation on ecological damage cost are introduced,＂ uncertainties that might arise in the valuation on the loss of ecological damage such as area coverage of valuation, ecological damage quantity, borders of ecological damage cost and data support are analyzed and the valuation approaches for the loss of ecological damage are also discussed As a case study, the economic losses of ecological damage of forest in 2005 in China are valuated.

Depreciation factor equation to evaluate the economic losses from ground failure due to subsidence related to groundwater withdrawal

Subsidence due to groundwater withdrawal is a complex hydrogeological process affecting numerous cities settled on top of fluviolacustrine deposits. The discrete spatial variation in the thickness of these deposits, in combination with subsidence due to groundwater withdrawal, generates differential settlements and aseismic ground failure (AGF) characterized by a welldefined scarp. In cities, such AGF causes severe damages to urban infrastructure and considerable economic impact. With the goal of arriving to a general criterion for evaluating the economic losses derived from AGF, in the present work we propose the following equation: ELi = PVi*DFi. Where PVi is the value of a property “i”, and DFi is a depreciation factor caused by structural damages of a property “i” due to AGF. The DFi is calculated empirically through: . This last equation is based on the spatial relations of coexistence and proximity of property polygons and the AGF axis. The coexistence is valued as the quotient of the affectation area divided by the total area of the involved property;and the proximity to the AGF axis is expressed as the inverse of the perpendicular distance from the centroid of the property polygon to the AGF axis. The sum of these terms is divided by two to determine the percentage that affects the property value (PVi). These equations are relevant because it is the first indicator designed for the discrete assessment of the economic impacts due to AGF, and can be applied to real estate infrastructure from either urban or rural areas.

Economic Losses from Winter Storms

China’s economic losses from the January winter storms keep escalating. The Ministry of Civil Affairs estimated that the direct economic losses valued

Evaluation of economic loss from energy-related environmental pollution： a case study of Beijing

With the growth of energy consumption, energy-related environmental pollution has become increasingly serious, which in turn causes enormous economic loss because of public health damage, corrosion of materials, crop yield reduction, and other factors. Evaluating economic loss caused by energy-related environmental pollution can contribute to decision making in energy management. A framework for evaluating economic loss from environmental pollution produced during energy production, transportation, and consumption is proposed in this paper. Regarding SO2, PMlo, and solid waste as the main pollutants, economic losses from health damage, materials corrosion, crop yield reduction, and solid waste pollution are estimated based on multiple concentration-response relationships and dos^response functions. The proposed framework and evaluation methods are applied to Beijing, China. It is evident that total economic loss attributable to energy-related environ-mental pollution fluctuated during 2000-2011 but had a general growth trend, with the highest value reaching 2.3× 108 CNY （China Yuan） in 2006. Economic loss caused by health damage contributes most to the total loss among the four measured damage types. The total economic loss strongly correlates with the amount of energy consumption, especially for oil and electricity. Our evaluation framework and methods can be used widely to measure the potential impact of environmental pollution in the energy lifecycle.

Hazard Footprint-Based Normalization of Economic Losses from Tropical Cyclones in China During 1983–2015

Loss normalization is the prerequisite for understanding the effects of socioeconomic development,vulnerability, and climate changes on the economic losses from tropical cyclones. In China, limited studies have been done on loss normalization methods of damages caused by tropical cyclones, and most of them have adopted an administrative division-based approach to define the exposure levels. In this study, a hazard footprint-based normalization method was proposed to improve the spatial resolution of affected areas and the associated exposures to influential tropical cyclones in China. The meteorological records of precipitation and near-surface wind speed were used to identify the hazard footprint of each influential tropical cyclone. Provincial-level and national-level(total)economic loss normalization(PLN and TLN) were carried out based on the respective hazard footprints, covering loss records between 1999–2015 and 1983–2015, respectively.Socioeconomic factors—inflation, population, and wealth(GDP per capita)—were used to normalize the losses. A significant increasing trend was found in inflation-adjusted losses during 1983–2015, while no significant trend was found after normalization with the TLN method. The proposed hazard footprint-based method contributes to amore realistic estimation of the population and wealth affected by the influential tropical cyclones for the original year and the present scenario.

A Damage Scenario for the 2012 Northern Italy Earthquakes and Estimation of the Economic Losses to Residential Buildings

In May 2012 a seismic sequence occurred in Northern Italy that was characterized by two main shocks with a magnitude range between 5.5 and 6. These shocks represent a good case study by which to quantify the monetary losses caused by a moderate earthquake in a densely populated and economically well-developed area.The loss estimation accounts for damage to residential buildings, and considers the full effect of all the seismic aftershock events that lasted for nearly a month. The building damage estimation is based on the European Macroseismic Scale(EMS-98) definitions, which depict the effects of an earthquake on built-up areas in terms of observed intensities. Input data sources are the residential building census provided by Istituto Nazionale di Statistica—the Italian National Institute of Statistics(ISTAT)—and the official market value of real estate assets, obtained from the Osservatorio del Mercato Immobiliare—the Real Estate Market Observatory(OMI). These data make it possible to quantify the economic losses due to earthquakes, an economic indicator updated yearly. The proposed multidisciplinary method takes advantage of seismic,engineering, and economic data sets, and is able to provide a reasonable after the event losses scenario. Data are not gathered for each single building and the intensity values are not a simple hazard indicator, but, notwithstanding its coarseness, this method ensures both robust and reproducible results. As the local property value is availablethroughout the Italian territory, the present loss assessment can be effortlessly repeated for any area, and may be quickly reproduced in case of future events, or used for predictive economic estimations.

Using Climate Factors to Estimate Flood Economic Loss Risk

Estimation of economic loss is essential for stakeholders to manage flood risk.Most flooding events are closely related to extreme precipitation,which is influenced by large-scale climate factors.Considering the lagged influence of climate factors,we developed a flood-risk assessment framework and used Hunan Province in China as an example to illustrate the risk assessment process.The main patterns of precipitation—as a connection between climate factors and flood economic losses—were extracted by the empirical orthogonal function(EOF)analysis.We identified the correlative climate factors through crosscorrelation analysis and established a multiple stepwise linear regression model to forecast future precipitation patterns.Risk assessment was done based on the main precipitation patterns.Because the economic dataset is limited,a Monte Carlo simulation was applied to simulate 1000-year flood loss events under each precipitation regime(rainy,dry,normal years)to obtain aggregate exceedance probability(AEP)and occurrence exceedance probability(OEP)curves.We found that precipitation has a strong influence on economic loss risk,with the highest risk in rainy years.Regional economic development imbalances are the potential reason for the varying economic loss risks in different regions of Hunan Province.As the climate indices with at least several months prediction lead time are strong indicators in predicting precipitation,the framework we developed can estimate economic loss risk several months in advance.

Assessment of the damages and direct economic loss in Hong Kong due to Super Typhoon Mangkhut in 2018

Super Typhoon Mangkhut hit Hong Kong on September 16,2018,necessitating the issuance of the highest tropical cyclone warning signal,No.10 Hurricane Signal.Packing ferocious winds and record-breaking storm surge,Mangkhut brought the most serious and widespread destruction to the territory in the recent three decades.A series of post event information search,field visits and damage surveys has been conducted by the Hong Kong Observatory(HKO)and the findings on the damages and impacts caused by Mangkhut in different parts of the territory are documented in this paper.Moreover,by analyzing the economic loss data reported by various government departments,public utilities and organizations in Hong Kong and the statistics on insurance claims from the Hong Kong Federation of Insurers(HKFI),the estimated direct economic loss due to Mangkhut in Hong Kong is about HK$4.60 billion,which is about 3.8 times to that of Super Typhoon Hato in 2017.On the contrary,in the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area,the estimated direct economic loss due to Hato is significantly higher than that of Mangkhut.This could be attributed to the early and effective warnings for Mangkhut,increased public awareness and typhoon preparedness for Mangkhut in 2018 since the fierce attack of Hato in 2017,and infrastructure enhancement of the major impact areas.

Effect of acidic deposition on productivity of forest ecosystem and estimation of its economic losses in southern suburbs of Chongqing, China

In accordance with principles and methods of ecology, the effects of acidic deposition on productivity and volume increment of masson pine and Cinnamomum campora forest which are widely distributed in southern suburbs of Chongqing, China were studied. Based on the field data and measurements, a multivariable stepwise regression model was established to analyze the effects of multiple environmental factors on the productivity of the forest ecosystems. This model was used to assess the volume and economic losses of these two forest ecosystems caused by acidic deposition. The result showed that, among the environmental factors, pH value of precipitation, soil depth, soil organic contents and slope are the dominant ones influencing the growth of masson pine forest. It was also shown that the acidic deposition has no clear relation to the growth of C.Campora forest, so development of such broad leaved forest is suitable in the area.

Co‑infection of fasciolosis and hydatidosis and their financial loss in cattle slaughtered at Wolaita Sodo municipal abattoir,southern Ethiopia

Fasciolosis and hydatidosis are the world’s most common zoonotic major parasitic ailments of domesticated animals with financial and public health implications.A cross-sectional study was conducted on 384 randomly selected cattle slaughtered at Wolaita Sodo municipal abattoir to estimate the prevalence and associated risk factors for co-infection of hydatidosis and fasciolosis using the ante-and postmortem examination techniques.Of the 384 examined cattle,4.17%were found to harbor co-infections of hydatidosis and fasciolosis.Similarly,the prevalence of concurrent fasciolosis and hydatidosis infections was 76.56%and 23.44%in local and crossbred animals,respectively.The current study took into account risk factors such as age,breed,origin,and body condition score;however,there is a statistically insignificant association between the risk factors and the prevalence of concurrent fasciolosis and hydatidosis infection.In this study,overall fasciolosis was recorded at a rate of 9.38%,with the highest prevalence of F.hepatica at 8.59%,followed by unidentified flukes at 4.17%and F.gigantica at 0.78%.Likewise,the single prevalence of hydatidosis was recorded at 10.94%.Of the 142 examined cysts,the liver alone harbors 54 cysts,and the lung alone harbors 88 cysts,with a total of 43 calcified,21 sterile,56 viable,9 nonviable,and 13 mixed cysts.The predicted yearly financial loss from organ condemnation was 15,436,142.00 ETB Birr.This study demonstrated that hydatidosis and fasciolosis are two relatively widespread parasite diseases of cattle in Ethiopia,causing significant economic loss attributable to organ rejection and indirect weight loss.Thus,awareness of the impact of the disease on the community could disrupt the parasite’s life cycle,and its economic significance was forwarded to other points.

Financial Losses Associated with Bovine Brucellosis (Brucella abortus) in Carchi-Ecuador

Brucellosis is an infectious disease of worldwide distribution, which has a great economic impact due to the productive and reproductive losses that it causes, in addition to the serious public health problem. The aim of this study is to estimate the economic losses, through financial analysis, caused by bovine brucellosis in the province of Carchi, over a one-year period. A random sampling was used to determine the prevalence in the study area, where 2976 animals were considered, and the Rose Bengal (RB) test was used as a screening test and the Fluorescence Polarized Assay (FPA) as a confirmatory test, obtaining a prevalence of 8.2% (244/2976). In addition, parameters associated to the losses caused by brucellosis in cattle were determined by literature review. To estimate costs, field information was collected through a survey of a total of 100 randomly selected farmers. The loss estimated due to calves lost as a result of abortions and neonatal death was USD. 79170.00. The loss due to death of 4 cows as a result of metritis was estimated at USD. 5000.00. The cost of examination and treatment of aborted cows was USD. 20100.00. The losses due to reduction in milk production from aborted and non-aborted seropositive cows were estimated at USD. 158114.21. The financial losses due to brucellosis in province of Carchi were estimated at USD. 262384.21.

Debris Flows Risk Analysis and Direct Loss Estimation:the Case Study of Valtellina di Tirano,Italy

andslide risk analysis is one of the primary studies providing essential instructions to the subsequent risk management process. The quantification of tangible and intangible potential losses is a critical step because it provides essential data upon which judgments can be made and policy can be formulated. This study aims at quantifying direct economic losses from debris flows at a medium scale in the study area in Italian Central Alps. Available hazard maps were the main inputs of this study. These maps were overlaid with information concerning elements at risk and their economic value. Then, a combination of both market and construction values was used to obtain estimates of future economic losses. As a result, two direct economic risk maps were prepared together with risk curves, useful to summarize expected monetary damage against the respective hazard probability. Afterwards, a qualitative risk map derived using a risk matrix officially provided by the set of laws issued by the regional government, was prepared. The results delimit areas of high economic as well as strategic importance which might be affected by debris flows in the future. Aside from limitations and inaccuracies inherently included in risk analysis process, identification of high risk areas allows local authorities to focus their attention on the “hot-spots”, where important consequences may arise and local （large） scale analysis needs to be performed with more precise cost-effectiveness ratio. The risk maps can be also used by the local authorities to increase population’s adaptive capacity in the disaster prevention process.

Regional Rainfall Damage Functions to Estimate Direct Economic Losses in Rainstorms:A Case Study of the 2016 Extreme Rainfall Event in Hebei Province of China

Developing a regional damage function to quickly estimate direct economic losses(DELs) caused by heavy rain and floods is crucial for providing scientific supports in effective disaster response and risk reduction. This study investigated the factors that influence regional rainfall-induced damage and developed a calibrated regional rainfall damage function(RDF) using data from the 2016 extreme rainfall event in Hebei Province, China. The analysis revealed that total precipitation, asset value exposure, per capita GDP, and historical geological disaster density at both the township and county levels significantly affect regional rainfall-induced damage. The coefficients of the calibrated RDF indicate that doubling the values of these factors leads to varying increases or decreases in rainfall-induced damage. Furthermore, the study demonstrated a spatial scale dependency in the coefficients of the RDF, with increased elasticity values for asset value exposure and per capita GDP at the county level compared to the township level. The findings emphasize the challenges of applying RDFs across multiple scales and highlight the importance of considering socioeconomic factors in assessing rainfall-induced damage. Despite the limitations and uncertainties of the RDF developed, this study contributes to our understanding of the relationship between physical and socioeconomic factors and rainfall-induced damage. Future research should prioritize enhancing exposure estimation and calibrating RDFs for various types of rainfall-induced disasters to improve model accuracy and performance.The study also acknowledges the variation in RDF performance across different physical environments, especially concerning geological disasters and slope stability.

conomic losses from reduced freshwater under future climate scenarios: An example from the Urumqi River,Tianshan Mountains

As important freshwater resources in alpine basins,glaciers and snow cover tend to decline due to climate warming,thus affecting the amount of water available downstream and even regional economic development.However,impact assessments of the economic losses caused by reductions in freshwater supply are quite limited.This study aims to project changes in glacier meltwater and snowmelt of the Urumqi River in the Tianshan Mountains under future climate change scenarios(RCP2.6(RCP,Representative Concentration Pathway),RCP4.5,and RCP8.5)by applying a hydrological model and estimate the economic losses from future meltwater reduction for industrial,agricultural,service,and domestic water uses combined with the present value method for the 2030 s,2050 s,2070 s,and 2090 s.The results indicate that total annual glacier meltwater and snowmelt will decrease by 65.6%and 74.5%under the RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 scenarios by the 2090 s relative to the baseline period(1980-2010),respectively.Compared to the RCP2.6 scenario,the projected economic loss values of total water use from reduced glacier meltwater and snowmelt under the RCP8.5 scenario will increase by 435.10×10^(6) and 537.20×10^(6) CNY in the 2050 s and 2090 s,respectively,and the cumulative economic loss value for 2099 is approximately 2124.00×10^(6) CNY.We also find that the industrial and agricultural sectors would likely face the largest and smallest economic losses,respectively.The economic loss value of snowmelt in different sectorial sectors is greater than that of glacier meltwater.These findings highlight the need for climate mitigation actions,industrial transformation,and rational water allocation to be considered in decision-making in the Tianshan Mountains in the future.

Understanding human-leopard conflict in the ‘Mid-hill’ region of western Nepal

Livestock rearing and agriculture are the main sources of community-based livelihoods in western Nepal.Across the rural mid-hills region of Gandaki Province,leopards are the top predator and frequently depredate livestock and attack humans.Spatiotemporal patterns of human-leopard conflicts(HLC) in Nepal are poorly known at the provincial and national scales,which are essential to formulating effective conflict mitigation strategies and implementing them in the field.This study aims to analyze the spatiotemporal pattern of HLC by applying Maxent modeling to covariates relating to known and registered conflict cases(n=842) collected from Nepalese government offices.We found that cases of HLC have been increasing significantly over the past five years.We also concluded that mid-elevation,south-facing slopes were more susceptible to HLC,but that mean annual temperature was by far the most important predictor of HLC;overall livestock density and proximity to roads were also important,but secondarily so.Although we found the increase in human fatalities to 2.16/year was significant(p<0.05),overall human injuries were down slightly,though not significantly(5.16/year;p>0.05).However,we also found an increasing trend in livestock depredation rates for this same five-year period(p<0.05),which averaged 159.6 head/year among incidents reported.We also found that winter was the main season when depredations occurred,and that goats were the most depredated of all livestock.A total US $86,892.25($17,378.45/year) of economic losses were incurred by communities during this time,with 78.57% of the total value reimbursed as compensatory relief through the government’s relief fund.We recommend that the use of predator-proof livestock corrals,greater awareness in local communities about wildlife behavior,better animal husbandry and security practices,and a more efficient compensation program,can improve coexistence between leopard populations and human communities in western Nepal.

Global Effect of Climate Change on Seasonal Cycles,Vector Population and Rising Challenges of Communicable Diseases:A Review

This article explains ongoing changes in global climate and their effect on the resurgence of vector and pathogen populations in various parts of the world.Today,major prevailing changes are the elevation of global temperature and accidental torrent rains,floods,droughts,and loss of productivity and food commodities.Due to the increase in water surface area and the longer presence of flood water,the breeding of insect vectors becomes very high;it is responsible for the emergence and re-emergence of so many communicable diseases.Due to the development of resistance to chemicals in insect pests,and pathogens and lack of control measures,communicable zoonotic diseases are remerging with high infectivity and mortality.This condition is becoming more alarming as the climate is favoring pathogen-host interactions and vector populations.Rapid changes seen in meteorology are promoting an unmanageable array of vector-borne infectious diseases,such as malaria,Japanese encephalitis,filarial,dengue,and leishmaniasis.Similarly,due to unhygienic conditions,poor sanitation,and infected ground and surface water outbreak of enteric infections such as cholera,vibriosis,and rotavirus is seen on the rise.In addition,parasitic infection ascariasis,fasciolosis,schistosomiasis,and dysentery cases are increasing.Today climate change is a major issue and challenge that needs timely quick solutions.Climate change is imposing non-adaptive forced human migration territorial conflicts,decreasing ecosystem productivity,disease outbreaks,and impelling unequal resource utilization.Rapid climate changes,parasites,pathogens,and vector populations are on the rise,which is making great threats to global health and the environment.This article highlighted the necessity to develop new strategies and control measures to cut down rising vector and pathogen populations in endemic areas.For finding quick solutions educational awareness,technology up-gradation,new vaccines,and safety measures have to be adopted to break the cycle of dreadful communicable diseases shortly.

神经外科多重耐药菌医院感染直接经济损失分析

目的 分析多重耐药菌(multi-drug resistant organism,MDRO)医院感染对神经外科住院患者住院费用和住院天数的影响,探讨MDRO医院感染造成住院费用差异的可能原因,为神经外科MDRO医院感染的管理与控制提供数据支持。方法 选取某大型三级甲等综合医院2019年1月1日—2019年12月31日住院、住院时间>48 h、住院费>1 000元的12 072例神经外科住院患者为研究对象,其中109例发生MDRO医院感染、其余患者11 963例。采用倾向指数匹配法(propensity score matching,PSM)对两组进行1:1匹配,对匹配后的病例组与对照组进行住院费用与住院日的统计分析,并用Blinder-Oaxaca分解法探讨造成住院费用差异的影响因素。结果 经PSM成功匹配108对,匹配成功率为99.08%。匹配后病例组与对照组在年龄、手术、疾病诊断等级、合并基础疾病、输血等方面差异无统计学意义(P>0.05)。病例组住院总费用、日住院费用及各项费用支出均高于对照组(P<0.01)。MDRO医院感染造成的直接经济损失为10.87万元/例,其中西药费占比最大为6.37万元/例(58.63%)。病例组住院天数较对照组延长14 d(P<0.01)。住院天数的禀赋差异为58.25%,且MDRO医院感染患者住院费用对住院天数的敏感程度更强。耐碳青霉烯类肠杆菌科细菌(carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae,CRE)、耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌(methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus,MRSA)、耐碳青霉烯类鲍曼不动杆菌(carbapenems-resistant Acinetobacter baumanii,CRAB)、耐碳青霉烯类铜绿假单胞菌(carbapene-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa,CRPA)4组医院感染患者的住院天数与总住院费用无统计学意义(P>0.05),但CRE医院感染患者的治疗费高于CRAB、CRPA(P<0.05)。结论 MDRO医院感染显著增加神经外科住院患者的住院天数和住院费用,医院管理部门应采取有效防控措施,减少下呼吸道、CRE医院感染等发生,重点控制住院天数,进而减轻患者经济负担。

Effects of acid deposition on terrestrial ecosystems and their rehabilitation strategies in China

South China has become the third largest region associated with acid deposition following Europe and North America, the area subject to damage by acid deposition increased from 1.75 million km 2 in 1985 to 2.8 million km 2 in 1993. Acid deposition has caused serious damage to ecosystem. Combined pollution of acid rain and SO 2 showed the obvious multiple effects on crops. Vegetable was more sensitive to acid deposition than foodstuff crops. Annual economic loss of crops due to acid deposition damage in eleven provinces of south China was 4.26 billion RMB Yuan. Acid deposition caused serious damage to forest. Annual economic loss of wood volume was about 1.8 billion RMB Yuan and forest ecological benefit loss 16.2 billion in eleven provinces of south China. Acid deposition in south China was typical “sulfuric acid type”. According to the thoughts of sustainable development, some strategies were brought forward as follows: (1) enhancing environmental management, specifying acid\|controlling region, controlling and abating the total emission amount of SO 2; (2) selecting practical energy technologies of clean coal, for example, cleansing and selecting coal, sulfur\|fixed\|type industrial briqutting, abating sulfur from waste gas and so on; (3) developing other energy sources to replace coal, including water electricity, atomic energy and the new energy such as solar energy, wind energy and so on; (4) in acid deposition region of south China, selecting acid\|resistant type of crop and tree to decrease agricultural losses, planting more green fertilizer crops, using organic fertilizers and liming, in order to improve buffer capacities of soil.