Determinants of malaria from environmental and poverty aspects in Indonesia:A spatiotemporal perspective,2016-2020

Objective:To investigate the environmental and social aspects of poverty contributing to malaria incidence in Indonesia from 2016 to 2020.Methods:Random forest regression was used to analyse the independent variables contributing to malaria incidence.Environmental conditions were extracted from remotely sensed data,including vegetation,land temperature,soil moisture,precipitation,and elevation.In contrast,the social aspects of poverty were obtained from government statistical reports.Results:From 2016 to 2020,the contribution of each environmental and social aspect of poverty to malaria incidence fluctuated annually.Generally,the top three essential variables were people aged 15 years and above,experiencing poverty(variable importance/VI=32.0%),people experiencing poverty who work in the agricultural sector(VI=14.4%),and precipitation(VI=9.8%).It was followed by people experiencing poverty who are unemployed(VI=9.2%),land temperature(VI=5.2%),people experiencing poverty who have low education(VI=8.0%),soil moisture(VI=7.4%),elevation(VI=6.0%),and vegetation(VI=3.8%).Conclusions:Poverty and variables related to climate have become the crucial determinants of malaria in Indonesia.The government must strengthen malaria surveillance through climate change mitigation and adaptation programs and accelerate poverty alleviation programs to support malaria elimination.

Poverty Reduction in China: Experiences and Measurement of Effects

This study employs the generalized method of moments(GMM)and panel vector autoregression(PVAR)models for a multi-factor quantitative dissection of China’s poverty reduction process across multiple stages,using provincial panel data from 2000 to 2019.According to our research,economic growth and social development are the key drivers of poverty reduction in China,but the trickle-down effect of economic growth is diminishing and marketization is having a lesser pro-poor effect.Public expenditure has failed to provide social protection and income redistribution benefits due to issues such as targeting error and elite capture.Increasing the efficiency of the poverty reduction system calls for adaptive adjustments.Finally,this study highlights China’s poverty reduction experiences and analyzes current challenges,which serve as inspiration for consolidating poverty-reduction achievements,combating relative poverty,and attaining countryside vitalization.

Influencing Factors and Prediction of Risk of Returning to Ecological Poverty in Liupan Mountain Region,China

China has resolved its overall regional poverty in 2020 by attaining moderate societal prosperity.The country has entered a new development stage designed to achieve its second centenary goal.However,ecological fragility and risk susceptibility have increased the risk of returning to ecological poverty.In this paper,the Liupan Mountain Region of China was used as a case study,and the counties were used as the scale to reveal the spatiotempora differentiation and influcing factors of the risk of returning to poverty in study area.The indicator data for returning to ecological poverty from 2011-2020 were collected and summarized in three dimensions:ecological,economic and social.The autoregressive integrated moving average model(ARIMA)time series and exponential smoothing method(ES)were used to predict the multidimensional indicators of returning to ecological poverty for 61 counties(districts)in the Liupan Mountain Region for 2021-2030.The back propagation neural network(BPNN)and geographic information system(GIS)were used to generate the spatial distribution and time variation for the index of the risk of returning to ecological poverty(RREP index).The results show that 1)ecological factors were the main factors in the risk of returning to ecological poverty in Liupan Mountain Region.2)The RREP index for the 61 counties(districts)exhibited a downward trend from 2021-2030.The RREP index declined more in medium-and high-risk areas than in low-risk areas.From 2021 to 2025,the RREP index exhibited a slight downward trend.From 2026 to2030,the RREP index was expected to decline faster,especially from 2029-2030.3)Based on the RREP index,it can be roughly divided into three types,namely,the high-risk areas,the medium-risk areas,and the low-risk areas.The natural resource conditions in lowrisk areas of returning to ecological poverty,were better than those in medium-and high-risk areas.

Discussion on Calculation Method of Poverty Incidence in the Exit Evaluation of Poverty-Stricken Counties and Villages

Poverty incidence is the key index that needs to be measured in the poverty exit examination and evaluation of 832 poverty-stricken counties and 128 000 poverty-stricken villages. In this paper, based on the statement of general concept and conventional calculation method of the poverty incidence, the calculation method of poverty incidence in the exit evaluation of poverty-stricken counties （also including poverty-stricken township and poverty-stricken villages） was investigated through the view of the third-party evaluation. In addition to considering the previous ＂number of planned poverty remaining population＂, the method also needed to give consideration to the exiting mistaken population, evaluation missing population. Based on the case in Yuanyang County, Honghe Hani and Yi Autonomous Prefecture, Yunnan Province, the poverty incidences of 10 exit planning villages by the end of 2017 in Yuanyang County were investigated and estimated, and suggestions were proposed to promote the precise poverty alleviation and poverty relief of the county.

Research on the construction of precise and healtli poverty -leviation performanceindex based on Analytic Hierarchy Process.

＂在文献研究法、 专家咨询法的基础上, 遵循科学性、 可操作性、 定性与定量相结合的原则, 采用层次分析法构建精准健康扶贫绩效评价指标体系,最终建立1个一级指标、3个二级指标、18个三级指标，为今后评价健康扶贫工作效果提供参考.

Eco-tourism: A New Approach of Ecological Rehabilitation and Out of Poverty Development in Wumeng Mountainous Area

The economic and social development status and the formation mechanism of "poverty trap" in Wumeng mountainous area were analyzed, the feasibility of developing eco-tourism to ecological restoration and rural poverty reduction was discussed, and some corresponding countermeasures were put forward.

Development Mode and Exploration of Poverty Alleviation in Countryside of Gansu Province in New Age

According to Rural Poverty Al eviation Development Outline in China （2011-2020） and new impoverished population standards, key poverty-stricken coun-ties increase from 51 to 58 in Gansu, and the impoverished population from 3.00 mil ion to 13.00 mil ion, and poverty-stricken area from 16% to 80%. Meanwhile, Rural Poverty Al eviation Development Outline in China （2011-2020） describes that poverty al eviation work in China has turned from resolving subsistence issue to consolidating present achievements, speeding up casting off poverty to get rich, im-proving eco-environment and development capacity, and reducing development gap. Confronted by new tasks in the new age, it is necessary to adjust work principles, make summary and develop innovation modes, to explore development mode of poverty al eviation in rural areas in Gansu in new age.

The Model of Poverty Alleviation and Income Growth by Developing Plateau-characterized Agriculture and Its Achievements Analysis in Yunnan Province——a Case Study in Midu County, Dali Bai Autonomous Prefecture

The policy of taking the targeted poverty alleviation measures has been the mission of the age in propelling the 13th Five-year Plan and building moderately prosperous society. A good poverty alleviation model is of significance for the goal. The research introduced a poverty-stricken county-Midu County, Dali Bai Au- tonomous Prefecture, analyzed the basic approaches and the main achievements of ＂the model of poverty alleviation and income growth by developing plateau-charac- terized agriculture＂, and proposed some suggestions to promoting and applying this model. The research provides references for plateau-characterized agricultural devel- opment and targeted poverty alleviation strategy.

Research on Development Strategy of Tourism Supporting for Poverty Alleviation in West Hubei

West Hubei Circle referred to the eight cities and prefectures which were Xiangfan,Jingzhou,Yichang,Shiyan,Jingmen,Suizhou,Enshi and Shennongjia.The economic and social development in this area was lagging behind,with wide poverty area,large impoverished population,poor natural condition and weak development foundation.Owing to lack of investment sources,the poverty-overcoming cost and poverty-returning rate in this area was high.It was the key area of poverty alleviation of Hubei Province.On the basis of analysis of the features of poverty alleviation in poverty-stricken areas of West Hubei,with the internal relation between tourism and poverty-alleviation as the reference,the author proposed the conceptualization of linkage development of tourism and poverty-alleviation west Hubei and preliminarily analyzed the feasibility of the linkage development between tourism and poverty-alleviation.The author considered that tourism and poverty-alleviation could mutually complement each other in function.The cultural and ecological tourism resources in West Hubei were abundant and unique,high in resources taste.And tourism was an industry with high return and intensive capital.It could collect capitals,lands,talents and technologies,win a great deal of human,material,capital and information resources in West Hubei,so as the promote the amelioration of the rural infrastructure and living conditions and urban construction.Meanwhile,the basic strategy of poverty-alleviation was put forward,that is,establishing the development mechanism with government as the lead and enterprises as the subjects,the financing mechanism of diversified investments and wide-ranging financing.Besides,with tourism as the trigger,tourism supporting for poverty-alleviation and ecological cultural village would be developed simultaneously,assisted by community participation mechanism,so as to realize mutual benefit and win-win cooperation of tourism and poverty-alleviation.

Income effects of poverty alleviation relocation program on rural farmers in China

This paper analyses the impact of the poverty alleviation relocation(PAR)program on rural household income and evaluates the heterogeneous income effects of various relocation modes,based on a panel dataset of relocated households from 16 counties in eight Chinese provinces.The results show that participation in the PAR increases the income of both rural and urban resettlers.More specifically,it has a significant positive effect on agricultural and wage income for rural and urban resettlers,respectively.Further analyses show that the income increase for rural resettlers was mainly due to agricultural technology training and that the income increase for town resettlers was attributed to medical security.For the village resettlers,policies should focus on strengthening the development of local industries and training of agricultural technologies.For the urban resettlers,non-agricultural employment and public services in the urban resettlement areas should be promoted.

Does poverty-alleviation-based industry development improve farmers'livelihood capital?

Targeted poverty alleviation is a unique approach adopted in China to help achieve the vision of a moderately prosperous society in all aspects and the"Chinese Dream".Industrial development as a means of poverty alleviation is an integral part of the"Five-pronged Poverty Alleviation Measures"Project of targeted poverty alleviation,and a critical foundation for other poverty alleviation measures.In this study,a comprehensive evaluation method was used to measure farmers'livelihood based on the framework of sustainable livelihood.Specifically,the effects of industrial development on farmers'livelihood capital were estimated by employing the propensity score matching combined with the difference-in-differences(PSM-DID)approach.Findings suggest that industrial development had a significantly positive effect on the livelihood capital of farmers.Industrial development can significantly enhance farmers'human,social and financial capital,while it cannot significantly affect the natural and physical capital.Industrial development had heterogeneous effects on farmers'livelihood capital,more efficiently impacting on the non-poor than the poor.The effects on farmers'livelihood capital varied across regions,with Guizhou experiencing a larger effect than Sichuan.However,the effect was insignificant for farmers in Gansu.To improve farmers'livelihood capital,it is necessary to take measures to strengthen their human capital,promote the innovation of financial products,and make good use of their social capital;it is also essential to strengthen the support of industrial development to the poor.

A Positive Mutual Impact between Inclusive Finance and Poverty Alleviation

The contradiction between profitability requirement of commercial finance and non-profitability nature of inclusive finance inhibits bankers' motivation in providing financial services to farmers,further restricting the already narrow financing channels for low-income rural households and preventing them from jumping out of the poverty trap.There is a mutual promotion relationship between inclusive finance and poverty reduction.On one hand,providing affordable and subsidized financial services to farmers can help them increase income steadily; On the other hand,the institutions reap a good payoff by business expansion,a thick base of loyal clients,as well as public recognition,which in turn stimulates the institutes to provide more financial products,improve their service quality and scale up the investment amount for lowincome farmers.Nevertheless,to set off this positive feedback loop process,a forcible intervention by government is needed.On the base of theoretical analysis and practical research,this article brought related advice for financial institutions in order to promote the development of inclusive finance and alleviate the financing difficulties of farmers households to realize poverty alleviation.

Economic contribution of participatory agroforestry program to poverty alleviation: a case from Sal forests, Bangladesh

In the Forest Department of Bangladesh, a Participatory Agroforestry Program （PAP） was initiated at a denuded Sal forests area to protect the forest resources and to alleviate poverty amongst the local poor population. We explored whether the PAP reduced poverty and what factors might be responsible for poverty alleviation. We used three poverty measurement methods： the Head Count Index, the Poverty Gap Index and the Foster-Greer-Thorbecke index to determine the extent poverty reduction. We used a linear regression model to determine the possible differences among factors in poverty reduction. Data were collected through semi structured questionnaires and face to face interviews within the study area. PAP proved effective at poverty alleviation, considerably improving the local situation. The linear regression model showed that PAP output explained the income differences in poverty reduction. Participants identified bureaucracy and illegal money demands by forest department officials, an uncontrolled market system, and underdeveloped road infrastructure as the main obstacles to reduction of poverty. Overall, PAP is quite successful in alleviating poverty. So this program might be of interest at other degraded forest areas as a tool to alleviate poverty.

Analyzing Influencing Factors of Rural Poverty in Typical Poverty Areas of Hainan Province: A Case Study of Lingao County

Rural poverty and poverty reduction are not only the focal issues that have attracted worldwide attention, but also the vital issues on people's livelihood that has attached great importance and aimed to be solved by the central and local governments of China. Based on the survey data of 354 farming households, this paper, taking the national poverty county of Lingao County, Hainan Province for an example, examined the characteristics of rural poverty of the county. Moreover, this paper established the spatial lag model(SLM) from five dimensions, namely, status of the household head, household structure, health status, income composition and traffic accessibility, to analyze the main influencing factors of rural poverty according to the values of Moran's I and the diagnosis of spatial dependence of the OLS model. It is found that the poor farming households gathered mainly in five towns in the north and southwest of the county, and the rural poverty have the characteristics of low educational level of the heads, more minor children, high population of farming peasants, high incidence of disease and low proportion of household wage-equivalent income. The results also showed that the variables such as the number of minor children, the number of migrant worker, the number of farming peasants and the proportion of wage-equivalent income have significant effectiveness on rural poverty, while the status of the household head, health status and traffic accessibility have little influence. It is an important way to realize the goal of poverty alleviation by controlling the number of farmers' fertility, strengthening the vocational skills training of farmers, vigorously developing specialization and large-scale agriculture and increasing the employment opportunities of farmers.

Impact of climate-smart agricultural technology on multidimensional poverty in rural Ethiopia

A large body of empirical literature showed that the adoption of agricultural technologies reduces poverty. However, dominants of those studies so far used one-dimensional income or expenditure-based measures of poverty which may not reflect other types of deprivations. Therefore, the major objective of this study is to examine the impact of adopting climate-smart agricultural technology, which refers to a joint application of row planting methods and the use of chemical fertilizers, on the multidimensional poverty status of rural households in Ethiopia. To estimate the impact of the stated technologies, this study employs propensity score matching and endogenous switching regression methods. To measure the multidimensional poverty index, the study also uses the Alkire and Foster counting approach. Using the Ethiopian Socioeconomic Survey(ESS), collected in 2015-Wave 3, the results of the study show that the adoption of these technologies reduces deprivation score and one of its component, the standard of living part. Regionally, a high reduction in deprivation is observed in Amhara and Oromiya regions. The results also show that the impact is significantly higher in severely deprived households. It is also observed that the reduction in multidimensional poverty due to the technology is through an increase in income/consumption via improvement in production gain. The impact channels more through the non-food expenditure pathway. Finally, this study also sheds light on the effects that technology adoption has on multidimensional poverty reduction.

Measurement and Promotion Strategy of Poverty Alleviation Effect through Ecological Tourism in Huanggang City

Huangang City is rich in ecotourism resources,in which more than 80%of ecotourism resources concentrate in poor countryside.According to the statistics,there are 4 tourism counties,15 famous tourism villages and 115 rural tourist attractions.But economic development in ecotourism scenic spots of Huanggang City is relatively backward,and the development of ecological economy is imminent,especially ecological tourism.Based on research results on poverty alleviation effect through ecological tourism at home and abroad,Huanggang City is taken as research object,and two input indexes(per capita comprehensive tourism income and per capita tourist reception)and three output indexes(per capita GDP,per capita net income of farmers,and per capita disposable income of urban residents)are used to establish evaluation index system of poverty alleviation effect through ecological tourism.Based on DEA-BCC model,11 counties(cities and districts)in Huanggang City are taken as decision-making units,and empirical analysis on poverty alleviation effect through tourism is conducted from three aspects:comprehensive efficiency,technical efficiency and scale efficiency.

Measurement and Decomposition of Multi-Dimensional Poverty in China

Based on China Family Panel Studies(CFPS) data and global MPI standard,this paper measures and analyzes multi-dimensional poverty in China. The study finds that the level of multi-dimensional poverty in China is not high and tends to decrease over time.Uneven regional development significantly affects multi-dimensional poverty. The poor are deprived in health, education and other aspects, but indicator contributions vary among specific groups of people. Overlap between economic poverty and multi-dimensional poverty has a trend of inter-temporal reduction. China's development-centered poverty reduction policy has achieved great results and significantly improved the development capabilities of the poor. Development-oriented approach is China's important experience in poverty reduction, and forebodes China's bright prospect of achieving its goal to complete building a moderately prosperous society by 2020.

Gradient Effect on Farmers' Income in the Mountain Areas and its Implication for Poverty Alleviation Strategies:Empirical Analysis from the Upper Reach of Minjiang River,China

Using four types of settlements in the upper reach of Minjiang River as case,we establish structural models in farmers' income of different settlement patterns based on rural household panel data to reveal the gradient effect on farmers' income and determinants.The results indicate that:(1) except the resettlement area,the incomes for farmers living in river valley,semi-mountain,and high-mountain settlements present a decreasing trend with the elevation increasing;on the contrary,their nonfarm earnings show an increasing trend with the elevation decreasing;(2) from the effect on farmers' income,there is a common feature that the nonfarm earnings and farming incomes have significant positive effects,and family size and productive expenditure have significant negative effects.One exception to this is the productive expenditure,which becomes insignificant in the model of resettlement area;(3) from the way of increasing farmers' income and alleviating poverty,there are great differences for four types of settlements in mountain areas,however,the improvement of agricultural product sales,agricultural production subsidies,the expansion for nonfarm employment,and the control of the family's size are the most effective approaches for poverty alleviation.

Impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on rural poverty and policy responses in China

Given the sudden outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic,a timely study on the impacts of and policy response to the pandemic on rural poverty in China is critically important because China has aimed to completely eradicate extreme poverty by the end of 2020.This paper uses data from the latest round of a nationally representative household panel survey to examine the impacts of the pandemic on rural poverty in China.Our data show that 11.9%of sample households were ever officially registered as poor households between 2013 and 2019,and this poverty incidence fell to 2.7%by the end of 2019.In the middle February of 2020,23%of the households who have graduated from poverty since 2013 perceived that they would fall back into poverty due to the COVID-19.Among those never poor households,7.1%perceived that they would possibly fall into poverty due to the pandemic.Results from both descriptive and multivariate analyses consistently show the interruptions that the pandemic caused in off-farm employment is an important channel that led households to perceive of falling back into or falling into poverty.We also find households in the bottom four quintiles when ranked in terms of household income per capita are much more likely to perceive themselves of falling back into or falling into poverty during this pandemic than those in the richest quintile.Meanwhile,our results show that the education and age of household heads,as well as being from Hubei Province matter in explaining household perception about falling back into or falling into poverty in some cases but not all.The paper concludes with a set of policy responses that China has taken to mitigate the impact of COVID-19 pandemic on poverty alleviation.

Poverty alleviation through e-commerce:Village involvement and demonstration policies in rural China

The diffusion of e-commerce has played a significant role in recent rural economic development in China.E-commerce is also considered as an efficient channel to alleviate poverty in rural China.Voluminous studies have investigated the contribution of e-commerce to agricultural development,yet it is lacking empirical evidence as to the effects of e-commerce on rural poverty alleviation.Since the year of 2014,in order to develop rural e-commerce,Chinese government launched the National Rural E-commerce Comprehensive Demonstration Project.This gradual involvement policy offered a natural experiment for evaluation of e-commerce.Based on village-level survey data from rural China and Heckit method,our study finds that rural e-commerce has a significantly positive effect on rural income.Moreover,the effect is inverted U-shaped for the relative-poverty villages.The estimation of the propensity scores matching model confirms that the results are robust.The following policy recommendations are proposed:(1)policy support to rural e-commerce should prioritize the povertystricken villages.By doing so,the marginal income effects of e-commerce will be maximized.(2)Investment in internet infrastructure and establishment of human resources for e-commerce in rural areas will have spillover effects,increasing rural income through the"digital dividend".