According to classical economic theory,external cost is the indirect,and uncompensated,social or environmental cost caused to an uninvolved third party that arises as an effect of another party’s activity.In light of...According to classical economic theory,external cost is the indirect,and uncompensated,social or environmental cost caused to an uninvolved third party that arises as an effect of another party’s activity.In light of this,the environmental cost caused by ballast water is considered as a negative externality.This paper aims to contribute by proposing that the environmental cost caused by ballast water can be determined through questionnaires,and that the imposition of a Pigouvian retributive tax is required to compensate for the environmental damage caused.The paper proceeds as follows.Firstly,ballast water management is discussed.Second,the environmental cost is discussed and it is asserted that it is important to have clear regulations and to update them frequently to prevent or minimize ballast water’s negative impact on the environment.Finally,it is suggested that the environmental cost caused by ballast water can be determined by questionnaires and,more specifically,by the WTP(Willingness to Pay)method,and that a special Pigouvian corrective taxation which can internalize this cost should be imposed.展开更多
As the international trading system has developed with the division of Global value Chains (GVCS), the export trade of Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa (BRICS) has grown rapidly. The resulting growth of ...As the international trading system has developed with the division of Global value Chains (GVCS), the export trade of Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa (BRICS) has grown rapidly. The resulting growth of carbon emissions has drawn wide attention from the international community, necessitating the comparison of the trade benefits and environmental costs of the BRICS participation in GVCS. Based on the Eora database, this paper constructs a decomposition framework for the calculation of export value-added and embodied carbon, based on a multi-region input-output (MRIO) model. The trade benefits and environmental costs paid by the BRICS’ total exports from 1990 to 2015 were measured and the imbalance was analyzed, along with the causes. The results show that the main value-added and carbon embodied in the BRICS’ exports originate from their own countries, and the domestic value-added content of the BRICS’ exports decreased while the foreign value-added content increased.展开更多
Electricity consumption increases rapidly with the rapid development of China. The environmental damage costs of electricity generation are very important for both policy analysis and the proper management of the envi...Electricity consumption increases rapidly with the rapid development of China. The environmental damage costs of electricity generation are very important for both policy analysis and the proper management of the environment. A method was developed in this work to estimate gross environmental damage costs according to emission inventory and environmental cost factors, and to extend the costs from provincial to national level with population density. In this paper, sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulate matter less than 10 μm in diameter (PM10), and carbon dioxide (CO2) from fossil fired power plants over 6000 kW were selected as index pollutants to quantify the environmental costs of damages on human health and global warming. With the new developed method, environmental damage costs, caused by 3 types of fired power plants in 30 provinces and 6 economic sectors during the years 2000 to 2003, were evaluated and analyzed. It can be seen that the calculated total national environmental damage costs of electricity have rapidly increased from 94930.87×106 USD in 2000 to about 141041.39×106 USD in 2003, with an average annual growth rate of 14.11%. Environmental damage costs of SO2, NOx, PM10, and CO2 are 69475.69×106, 30079.29×106, 28931.84×106, and 12554.57×106 USD and account for 49.26%, 21.33%, 20.51%, and 8.90% of total environmental costs in fossil electricity generation, respectively. With regard to regional distribution, external costs caused by fossil electricity generation are mainly concentrated in the more populated and industrialized areas of China, i.e., the Eastern Central and Southeastern areas.展开更多
Power industry as an important means of primary energy consumption, occupies an important position in coal consumption and pollutant emissions, and causes a great impact on the environment. It is particularly importan...Power industry as an important means of primary energy consumption, occupies an important position in coal consumption and pollutant emissions, and causes a great impact on the environment. It is particularly important to define environmental costs while Environmental costs account for a heavy weight in the total cost of generating after the introduction of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) This paper analyzes the composition of environmental cost and its calculation methods, three cost equivalent pricing methods and its scope in environmental costs were proposed, there are Government pricing, market pricing and cost accounting, then analyses the cost of equivalent effect on electricity trade.展开更多
This paper estimates China’s industrial costs under the virtual cost accounting approach.The estimation results show that Chinese industries have disbursed an increasing amount of environmental costs since 1992 while...This paper estimates China’s industrial costs under the virtual cost accounting approach.The estimation results show that Chinese industries have disbursed an increasing amount of environmental costs since 1992 while expanding environmental investment;China’s industrial cleanness has been on the rise since 1998;the virtual industrial environmental costs have been in decline since 1998.In 2007,the total industrial environmental costs accounted for merely 0.73%of gross industrial output value and only 2.52%of industrial value added;the virtual environmental costs accounted for merely 0.23%of gross industrial output value and only 0.81%of industrial value added.These figures indicate that the effects of environmental costs on the international competitiveness of Chinese industries are very limited even if China complies with the highest environmental standards.展开更多
Environmental degradation is costly—to individuals, to societies and to the environment. This paper makes these costs clear in the context of Morocco, a country marked by rapid economic development and urbanization. ...Environmental degradation is costly—to individuals, to societies and to the environment. This paper makes these costs clear in the context of Morocco, a country marked by rapid economic development and urbanization. Although Morocco has made impressive efforts to strengthen its policies and strategies to protect its environment and natural resources, environmental degradation is still an issue. Using the most updated methodology and data sources, the paper estimates that environmental degradation imposed costs on Moroccan society of about US$3.9 billion, or 3.5 percent of the country’s GDP in 2014. Water-related problems and air pollution are the most pressing challenges, followed by agricultural land degradation. Based on these findings, the paper provides guidance for an improved management of the country’s environmental priority areas.展开更多
The purpose of this study is to estimate the monetary value of the main environmental and external costs of Yali Hydropower Plant (YHPP) and to incorporate them into the financial viability indices of the plant, namel...The purpose of this study is to estimate the monetary value of the main environmental and external costs of Yali Hydropower Plant (YHPP) and to incorporate them into the financial viability indices of the plant, namely its net present value and electricity price. The results were found that if the electricity price is kept at its original level of 5.2 US cents/kWh to cover direct costs only, the net present value of the plant would be reduced to about 27% by incorporating environmental and external costs. Alternatively, the electricity price would have to be increased to 5.68 US cents/kWh in order to cover the full costs of YHPP and to maintain the original net present value. The main policy recommendations are: Government regulations should require that the financial analysis and appraisal of all future electricity sources include the full cost of these schemes, including not only direct costs but also environmental and external costs related to preventing or mitigating the environmental impact caused by them. An appropriate financial mechanism should be established to allocate the revenue from full cost electricity pricing to a fund to cover the environmental protection and compensation costs.展开更多
This study assessed the effectiveness of mitigation measures adopted to address the environmental effects of oil and gas industries from the perspective of compliance, cost of production, and community awareness. The ...This study assessed the effectiveness of mitigation measures adopted to address the environmental effects of oil and gas industries from the perspective of compliance, cost of production, and community awareness. The research applied a case study through multi-method-qualitative and quantitative approaches. The target population of 547,368 people involved people in Takoradi, Shama and Newtown communities. A sample size of </span><span style="font-family:Verdana;">150</span><span style="font-family:Verdana;"> was selected and categorised under 36% for Shama, 30% for Newtown and 34% for Takoradi. A combination of probability (simple random) and non-probability (cluster and convenience) sampling frames were used to access the respondents for the study. Data collection tools were limited to questionnaires and interview sessions. The descriptive statistics, Relative Importance Index (RII) and significance testing using a one-sample t-test module guided the analysis. Interview sessions were compiled into transcripts and later categorized into themes that directly reflected the patterns of the questions on the questionnaire. The conclusion rated major decisions in mitigating oil and gas impacts on the environment as first for conscious effort to package fuel and other chemicals in safe storages, followed by the use of best road systems to reduce the risk of accidents, then application of strict rules and regulations to curb impacts and lastly capacity building for participants in the oil and gas production industry. While significant measures have been adopted to mitigate the effects of oil and gas exploration, there remain challenges with effectiveness as a result of weakness in community involvement efforts, lack of motivation, weak laws and regulations and loss of respect. For effectiveness in reducing the challenges to mitigate the environmental impacts of the oil and gas production activity, policymakers, as well as the practitioners in the oil production industry, are advised to motivate people into buying into their policy to reduce such impacts.展开更多
With the rapid economic development of China,the environmental degradation brought by economic development cannot be ignored.In order to measure the cost of environmental degradation brought by land projects in the pr...With the rapid economic development of China,the environmental degradation brought by economic development cannot be ignored.In order to measure the cost of environmental degradation brought by land projects in the process of economic development and evaluate a land project,this paper establishes an ecological service evaluation model based on cost-benefit method to analyze the cost and benefit of land development projects from a new perspective,and explore effective strategies to alleviate environmental degradation.展开更多
文摘According to classical economic theory,external cost is the indirect,and uncompensated,social or environmental cost caused to an uninvolved third party that arises as an effect of another party’s activity.In light of this,the environmental cost caused by ballast water is considered as a negative externality.This paper aims to contribute by proposing that the environmental cost caused by ballast water can be determined through questionnaires,and that the imposition of a Pigouvian retributive tax is required to compensate for the environmental damage caused.The paper proceeds as follows.Firstly,ballast water management is discussed.Second,the environmental cost is discussed and it is asserted that it is important to have clear regulations and to update them frequently to prevent or minimize ballast water’s negative impact on the environment.Finally,it is suggested that the environmental cost caused by ballast water can be determined by questionnaires and,more specifically,by the WTP(Willingness to Pay)method,and that a special Pigouvian corrective taxation which can internalize this cost should be imposed.
文摘As the international trading system has developed with the division of Global value Chains (GVCS), the export trade of Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa (BRICS) has grown rapidly. The resulting growth of carbon emissions has drawn wide attention from the international community, necessitating the comparison of the trade benefits and environmental costs of the BRICS participation in GVCS. Based on the Eora database, this paper constructs a decomposition framework for the calculation of export value-added and embodied carbon, based on a multi-region input-output (MRIO) model. The trade benefits and environmental costs paid by the BRICS’ total exports from 1990 to 2015 were measured and the imbalance was analyzed, along with the causes. The results show that the main value-added and carbon embodied in the BRICS’ exports originate from their own countries, and the domestic value-added content of the BRICS’ exports decreased while the foreign value-added content increased.
基金Project (No. 056846) supported by the National Development and Reform Commission of China (NDRC)
文摘Electricity consumption increases rapidly with the rapid development of China. The environmental damage costs of electricity generation are very important for both policy analysis and the proper management of the environment. A method was developed in this work to estimate gross environmental damage costs according to emission inventory and environmental cost factors, and to extend the costs from provincial to national level with population density. In this paper, sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulate matter less than 10 μm in diameter (PM10), and carbon dioxide (CO2) from fossil fired power plants over 6000 kW were selected as index pollutants to quantify the environmental costs of damages on human health and global warming. With the new developed method, environmental damage costs, caused by 3 types of fired power plants in 30 provinces and 6 economic sectors during the years 2000 to 2003, were evaluated and analyzed. It can be seen that the calculated total national environmental damage costs of electricity have rapidly increased from 94930.87×106 USD in 2000 to about 141041.39×106 USD in 2003, with an average annual growth rate of 14.11%. Environmental damage costs of SO2, NOx, PM10, and CO2 are 69475.69×106, 30079.29×106, 28931.84×106, and 12554.57×106 USD and account for 49.26%, 21.33%, 20.51%, and 8.90% of total environmental costs in fossil electricity generation, respectively. With regard to regional distribution, external costs caused by fossil electricity generation are mainly concentrated in the more populated and industrialized areas of China, i.e., the Eastern Central and Southeastern areas.
文摘Power industry as an important means of primary energy consumption, occupies an important position in coal consumption and pollutant emissions, and causes a great impact on the environment. It is particularly important to define environmental costs while Environmental costs account for a heavy weight in the total cost of generating after the introduction of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) This paper analyzes the composition of environmental cost and its calculation methods, three cost equivalent pricing methods and its scope in environmental costs were proposed, there are Government pricing, market pricing and cost accounting, then analyses the cost of equivalent effect on electricity trade.
基金This research is funded by Natural Science Foundation of China (71171001) the Ministry of Education's General Project of Humanitarian and Social Science (Approval No.11YJC630107).
基金"Developing Technologies for Dynamic Simulation of Cross-Regional Economic Development (2006BAC18B03)", a research project under the National Science and Technology Support Program.
文摘This paper estimates China’s industrial costs under the virtual cost accounting approach.The estimation results show that Chinese industries have disbursed an increasing amount of environmental costs since 1992 while expanding environmental investment;China’s industrial cleanness has been on the rise since 1998;the virtual industrial environmental costs have been in decline since 1998.In 2007,the total industrial environmental costs accounted for merely 0.73%of gross industrial output value and only 2.52%of industrial value added;the virtual environmental costs accounted for merely 0.23%of gross industrial output value and only 0.81%of industrial value added.These figures indicate that the effects of environmental costs on the international competitiveness of Chinese industries are very limited even if China complies with the highest environmental standards.
文摘Environmental degradation is costly—to individuals, to societies and to the environment. This paper makes these costs clear in the context of Morocco, a country marked by rapid economic development and urbanization. Although Morocco has made impressive efforts to strengthen its policies and strategies to protect its environment and natural resources, environmental degradation is still an issue. Using the most updated methodology and data sources, the paper estimates that environmental degradation imposed costs on Moroccan society of about US$3.9 billion, or 3.5 percent of the country’s GDP in 2014. Water-related problems and air pollution are the most pressing challenges, followed by agricultural land degradation. Based on these findings, the paper provides guidance for an improved management of the country’s environmental priority areas.
文摘The purpose of this study is to estimate the monetary value of the main environmental and external costs of Yali Hydropower Plant (YHPP) and to incorporate them into the financial viability indices of the plant, namely its net present value and electricity price. The results were found that if the electricity price is kept at its original level of 5.2 US cents/kWh to cover direct costs only, the net present value of the plant would be reduced to about 27% by incorporating environmental and external costs. Alternatively, the electricity price would have to be increased to 5.68 US cents/kWh in order to cover the full costs of YHPP and to maintain the original net present value. The main policy recommendations are: Government regulations should require that the financial analysis and appraisal of all future electricity sources include the full cost of these schemes, including not only direct costs but also environmental and external costs related to preventing or mitigating the environmental impact caused by them. An appropriate financial mechanism should be established to allocate the revenue from full cost electricity pricing to a fund to cover the environmental protection and compensation costs.
文摘This study assessed the effectiveness of mitigation measures adopted to address the environmental effects of oil and gas industries from the perspective of compliance, cost of production, and community awareness. The research applied a case study through multi-method-qualitative and quantitative approaches. The target population of 547,368 people involved people in Takoradi, Shama and Newtown communities. A sample size of </span><span style="font-family:Verdana;">150</span><span style="font-family:Verdana;"> was selected and categorised under 36% for Shama, 30% for Newtown and 34% for Takoradi. A combination of probability (simple random) and non-probability (cluster and convenience) sampling frames were used to access the respondents for the study. Data collection tools were limited to questionnaires and interview sessions. The descriptive statistics, Relative Importance Index (RII) and significance testing using a one-sample t-test module guided the analysis. Interview sessions were compiled into transcripts and later categorized into themes that directly reflected the patterns of the questions on the questionnaire. The conclusion rated major decisions in mitigating oil and gas impacts on the environment as first for conscious effort to package fuel and other chemicals in safe storages, followed by the use of best road systems to reduce the risk of accidents, then application of strict rules and regulations to curb impacts and lastly capacity building for participants in the oil and gas production industry. While significant measures have been adopted to mitigate the effects of oil and gas exploration, there remain challenges with effectiveness as a result of weakness in community involvement efforts, lack of motivation, weak laws and regulations and loss of respect. For effectiveness in reducing the challenges to mitigate the environmental impacts of the oil and gas production activity, policymakers, as well as the practitioners in the oil production industry, are advised to motivate people into buying into their policy to reduce such impacts.
基金Supported by the Project of National Natural Science Foundation "3-stream Conjecture,Fulkerson-coverage and Related Issues"(11601001)
文摘With the rapid economic development of China,the environmental degradation brought by economic development cannot be ignored.In order to measure the cost of environmental degradation brought by land projects in the process of economic development and evaluate a land project,this paper establishes an ecological service evaluation model based on cost-benefit method to analyze the cost and benefit of land development projects from a new perspective,and explore effective strategies to alleviate environmental degradation.