The contribution of botanic gardens to ex situ conservation through seed banking

Target 8 of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation calls for 'at least 75 per cent of threatened plant species in ex situ collections, preferably in the country of origin, and at least 20 per cent available for recovery and restoration programmes by 2020'.Botanic gardens make a significant contribution to ex situ conservation of wild species with more than a third of plant species represented in botanic gardens collections. These collections are a combination of living collection and seed banked material. Seed banking can provide an efficient form of conservation for wild plant genetic diversity.Information from Botanic Gardens Conservation International's(BGCI) databases(GardenSearch,PlantSearch, ThreatSearch and GlobalTreeSearch) has been analysed as well as survey data to report on global, regional and national seed banking trends.Information from BGCI's databases indicates that there are at least 350 seed banking botanic gardens in 74 countries. In total 56,987 taxa have been banked including more than 9000 taxa that are threatened with extinction. 6881 tree species are stored in ex situ seed bank collections. More than half(3562) of these tree species are single country endemics and represent species from more than 166 countries.This study suggests that institutions are increasingly conserving plant species via seed banking.However the majority of species in collections that have a conservation assessment are not threatened with extinction. This disjunction between species that are threatened and those conserved in seed banks needs to be addressed. Data from BGCI's databases can be used to enable prioritisation of threatened plant species for collection and conservation in seed banks. Further recommendations for botanic gardens involved in seed conservation are presented.

Effects of ex situ conservation on diversity and function of the gut microbiota of the Tibetan wild ass(Equus kiang)

Ex situ conservation is the main method for the protection of endangered wildlife.To explore the effect of ex situ conservation on the gut microbiota of the kiang(Equus kiang),metagenomic sequencing combined with bioinformatics analysis was used to investigate the composition and function of the gut microbiota of the kiang.The results showed that ex situ conservation not only protected wildlife,but also affected the composition and function of gut microbiota,as well as the health of animals.In the zoo,the ratio of the relative abundance of Firmicutes to that of Bacteroidetes(F/B)is higher,clusters of potentially pathogenic bacteria(such as Catonella,Catonella,and Mycoplasma)are more numerous,the abundance of resistance genes is higher,and the abundance of metabolic functions is increased.The dynamic changes of the gut microbiota also played an important role in the nutritional absorption,energy metabolism,and environmental adaptation of the kiang.Improving the rearing environment and increasing food diversity play important roles for increasing the diversity of gut microbiota,reducing the spread of potentially pathogenic bacteria,and reducing diseases.In the wild,especially in winter and in food-deficient areas,food supplementation can enhance the gut microbial homeostasis of wild animals and reduce the impact of crises.In depth studies of the gut microbial function of wildlife have important implications for improving ex situ conservation.

Ex situ Flora of China

The role of living collections-based research and discovery has been a prominent feature throughout the history of evolution and advance of botanical science: such research is the core and soul of the botanical gardens. Currently, there are c. 162 Chinese botanical gardens, harboring c. 20,000 species in China. As an example of initiatives to utilize the garden cultivated flora to address plant diversity conservation and germplasm discovery for sustainable agriculture and the bio-industries, the Ex situ Flora of China project aims to catalog and document this mega-diversity of plants that are cultivated in the Chinese botanical gardens. The concept of Ex situ Flora of China is a complete new formulation of species, based on garden cultivated individuals and populations, to obtain better morphological descriptions, provide multipurpose applicability and a fundamental data service that will support national bio-strategies and bioindustries. It emphasises integrative information, accurately collected from living collections across different Chinese botanical gardens, on biology, phenology, cultivation requirements and uses of plant resources, which are normally not available from traditional Floras based on herbarium specimens. The ex situ flora should provide better information coverage for taxonomy, biological and introduction and collection data and color photos of stems, leaves, flowers, fruits and seed, as well as useful information of cultivation key points and main use of each plant. In general, the Ex situ Flora of China provides more useful information than the traditional Flora Reipublicae Popularis Sinicae. The project of Ex situ Flora of China is planned to be one of the most important initiatives of the plant diversity research platform for sustainable economic and social development in China.

Genotyping ex situ trees of Abies nebrodensis translocated from the original Sicilian population to enrich the gene pool

As a dynamic ex situ conservation strategy,a clonal seed orchard was started in a nursery in Pomaio(POM)in central Italy in 1993 for an assisted migration experiment of Abies nebrodensis(Lojac.)Mattei.Two artifi cial ex situ populations were planted with this gene pool:a seedling arboretum in Pieve Santo Stefano(PSS)and a small dendrological collection in Papiano(PAP),both originating from the Sicilian relict population.Here,using AFLP markers,we estimated the relatedness among the relocated genotypes of the three collections to check whether the three collections had suffi cient genetic variability to be considered as additional sources of variability to the original gene pool for the assisted migration strategy.High individual genetic variability was found in the collections;each plant had a diff erent genotype and was confi rmed to belong to its population of origin.PAP and PSS trees were shown to be only from the original population of A.nebrodensis species and were derived from a limited set of maternal fertile genotypes.Based on the Sicilian fi r population inventory,nursery production in Sicily,and structure clustering analysis,close genetic relationships among POM,PAP and several PSS trees(1–35)were evident.Similarly,the PSS group(36–78)was genetically close to tree 1 of POM and in a lesser proportion to plants 7 and 9 of POM.The sampling of seedlings used to form batches in the nursery might have infl uenced the structure of the resultant plantations.All genotypes will be useful for enriching the original gene pool.

Orchid conservation in China from 2000 to 2020:Achievements and perspectives

We review achievements in the conservation of orchid diversity in China over the last 21 years.We provide updated information on orchid biodiversity and suggestions for orchid conservation in China.We outline national policies of biodiversity conservation,especially of orchid conservation,which provide general guidelines for orchid conservation in China.There are now approximately 1708 known species of Orchidaceae in 181 genera in China,including five new genera and 365 new species described over the last 21 years.The assessment of risk of extinction of all 1502 known native orchid species in China in 2013 indicated that 653 species were identified as threatened,132 species were treated as data-deficient,and four species endemic to China were classified as extinct.Approximately 1100 species(ca.65%)are protected in national nature reserves,and another~66 species in provincial nature reserves.About 800 native orchid species have living collections in major botanical gardens.The pollination biology of 74 native orchid species and the genetic diversity and spatial genetic structure of 29 orchid species have been investigated at a local scale and/or across species distributions.The mycorrhizal fungal community composition has been investigated in many genera,such as Bletilla,Coelogyne,Cymbidium,Cypripedium,and Dendrobium.Approximately 292 species will be included in the list of national key protected wild plants this year.Two major tasks for near future include in situ conservation and monitoring population dynamics of endangered species.

Plant species with extremely small populations(PSESP) in China:A seed and spore biology perspective

Approximately one fifth of the world's plants are at risk of extinction.Of these,a significant number exist as populations of few individuals,with limited distribution ranges and under enormous pressure due to habitat destruction.In China,these most-at-risk species are described as 'plant species with extremely small populations'(PSESP).Implementing conservation action for such listed species is urgent.Storing seeds is one of the main means of ex situ conservation for flowering plants.Spore storage could provide a simple and economical method for fern ex situ conservation.Seed and spore germination in nature is a critical step in species regeneration and thus in situ conservation.But what is known about the seed and spore biology(storage and germination) of at-risk species? We have used China's PSESP(the first group listing) as a case study to understand the gaps in knowledge on propagule biology of threatened plant species.We found that whilst germination information is available for 28 species(23%of PSESP),storage characteristics are only known for 8%of PSESP(10 species).Moreover,we estimate that 60%of the listed species may require cryopreservation for long-term storage.We conclude that comparative biology studies are urgently needed on the world's most threatened taxa so that conservation action can progress beyond species listing.

The Alpine Seed Conservation and Research Network–a new initiative to conserve valuable plant species in the European Alps

Safeguarding plants as seeds in ex situ collections is a cost effective element in an integrated plant conservation approach. The European Alps are a regional centre of plant diversity. Six institutions have established a regional network covering the European Alps which will conserve at least 500 priority plant species and which will improve the conservation status of plant species in grassland communities in the subalpine, alpine and nival altitudinal belts. Targeted research will expand the knowledge of the ecology of target speeies. Public engagement activities will raise the awareness for the importance of specific conservation actions in the European Alps.

Potential Risk of Hybridization in Ex Situ Collections of Two Endangered Species of Sinojackia Hu （Styracaceae）

Spontaneous hybridization in ex situ facilities can undermine the genetic integrity of ex situ collections and potentially contaminate open-pollinated seeds or seedlings destined for the reintroduction of endangered plant species into the wild. In the present study, the potential risk of hybridization between two endangered Chinese endemic species, namely Sinojackia xylocarpa Hu and S. rehderiana Hu, which are naturally allopatric species but were conserved ex situ in Wuhan Botanical Garden （WBG）, Wuhan, China, were investigated over three consecutive years from 2003 to 2005. The entire overlapping flowering period of the two species was 14-20 d and the two species shared the same pollinator insects during the entire flowering season in WBG. The floral isolation between the two species was not an issue in the ex sltu collection at WBG. The results suggest an opportunity for pollen transfer between species and a potential risk of genetic Introgression and loss of genetic identity of open-pollinated seeds produced in the ex sltu Collection of these two endangered species. An artificial reciprocal cross between S xylocarpa and S. rehderlana confirmed that the two congener species could readily set seeds, indicating no post-pollination barriers to hybridization and the importance of spatial isolation as a barrier to inter-specific crossing. Therefore, to manage these crossable species with overlapping flowering times and shared pollination vectors in ex situ facilities, spatial isolation should be carefully considered to minimize the possibility of spontaneous hybridization.

Some Thoughts on Science-based Botanical Garden Establishment

Through analysis of the historical and present development of botanical gardens, both domestic and international, with particular focus on botanical garden practices within the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), the authors propose that science-based botanical gardens (which differ from common public gardens), should be founded on plant diversity inventory and ex-situ conservation of wild plant species. Efforts should be directed to rarer species from biodiversity-rich areas and biodiversity hotspots, utilizing cutting-edge technologies to effectively preserve germplasm in living collections. Science-based botanical garden management should be directed by sound scientific evaluation of plant resources and guaranteed by innovative operational mechanisms. Science-based botanical gardens should also emphasize the establishment of identifiable and specialized living collections, research platforms and recruitment of qualified experts. In addition to curating living specimens, science-based botanical gardens should pursue research and development of new plant varieties or patents based on their plant collections, thus providing continual support to bio-industry.

Former Botanical Garden of ORSTOM(Côte d’Ivoire):What Remain after Thirty Years of Abandonment and Forest Restoration

Botanical gardens represent important places for ex situ conservation.One of these botanical gardens has been abandoned in Côte d’Ivoire for 30 years.This is the former botanical garden of ORSTOM.This study was conducted to determine the level of diversity of this former garden in order to assess the opportunity for its rehabilitation.The authors carried out inventories in 18 quadrats of 500 m2 through the vegetation to collect woody species.Dendrometric measurements(height,diameter)were also recorded to assess the structure of the site.A total of 190 species have been identified.They belong to 141 genera and 47 families.This former botanical garden contains important species because of their origin,status or particularity(threatened,endemic,rarity,etc.).A total of 19 threatened species including 2 endangered and west African endemic(Chrysophyllum azaguieanum J.Miège,Placodiscus pseudostipularis)were found at the site.Also,Chrysophyllum azaguieanum is declared extinct from Côte d’Ivoire.Four species are rare in the flora of Côte d’Ivoire:Balanites wilsoniana,Chrysophyllum azaguieanum,Gilletiodendron kisantuense and Loesenera kalantha.The most abundant species is Hopea odorata.Although this introduced species is considered globally vulnerable,it presents a risk of invasion in the forest of Côte d’Ivoire.The diameter and height structures show that all the stages of development are presented indicating a good regeneration on the site.Ultimately,this botanical garden deserves to be rehabilitated and especially urgent management of Hopea odorata is needed to prevent an invasion of this species.

An International Survey on State of the Art of Grain Legume Management in Gene Banks

An online survey addressed to members listed in the European Cooperative Programme for Crop Genetic Resources Networks Working Group on Graithe current problems in the management of GL germplasm, to work out the criterian Legumes and Grain Legumes （GL） germplasm managers and breeders was carded out to pinpoint and decisions involved in the implementation of regeneration procedures and to identify strategic areas where further research is required. The survey was divided into three sections： （1） germplasm collection details and current status of the regeneration needs; （2） assessment over the understanding of basic information required to carry out appropriate regeneration procedures such as the breeding systems, the pollination requirements and pollinating agents, the isolation techniques and regeneration facilities; and （3） assessment of different options, in addition to ＂ex situ＂, such as ＂in situ＂ and ＂on farm＂ conservation. Obtaining, collating and analysing different kinds of existing data on mating system of GL species, effective pollination control methods and isolation facilities by species and location is one example of a priority issue. The GL community makes a clear request for greater support for the development of well-designed methodologies of regeneration that maintain the genetic structure of populations and that the optimum regeneration strategy is most likely to be achieved through integrating pollinators with the regeneration procedures. A major concern of the GL community is the lack of empirical scientific information on the most suitable pollinator agents.

Global climate change is confounding species conservation strategies

Most organisms face similar problems with respect to their conservation in the face of global climate change.Here,we examine probable effects of climate change on the hyperdiverse plant family Orchidaceae.In the 20th century,the major concerns for orchid conservation revolved around unsustainable harvest for the orchid trade and,more importantly,land conversion from natural ecosystems to those unable to support wild orchid pop­ulations.Land conversion included logging,fire regimes and forest conversions to agricultural systems.Al­though those forms of degradation continue,an additional suite of threats has emerged,fueled by global cli­mate change.Global climate change involves more than responses of orchid populations to increases in ambient temperature.Increasing temperature induces secondary effects that can be more significant than simple chang­es in temperature.Among these new threats are extended and prolonged fire seasons,rising sea levels,increases in cyclonic storms,seasonal climate shifts,changes in orthographic wind dew point and increased drought.The long-term outlook for orchid biodiversity in the wild is dismal,as it is for many animal groups,and we need to start rethinking strategies for conservation in a rapidly changing world.