Classification of Precipitation Types Using Fall Velocity–Diameter Relationships from 2D-Video Distrometer Measurements

Fall velocity–diameter relationships for four different snowflake types（dendrite,plate,needle,and graupel） were investigated in northeastern South Korea,and a new algorithm for classifying hydrometeors is proposed for distrometric measurements based on the new relationships.Falling ice crystals（approximately 40 000 particles） were measured with a two-dimensional video disdrometer（2DVD） during a winter experiment from 15 January to 9 April 2010.The fall velocity–diameter relationships were derived for the four types of snowflakes based on manual classification by experts using snow photos and 2DVD measurements：the coefficients（exponents） for different snowflake types were 0.82（0.24） for dendrite,0.74（0.35） for plate,1.03（0.71） for needle,and 1.30（0.94） for graupel,respectively.These new relationships established in the present study（PS） were compared with those from two previous studies.Hydrometeor types were classified with the derived fall velocity–diameter relationships,and the classification algorithm was evaluated using 3 × 3 contingency tables for one rain–snow transition event and three snowfall events.The algorithm showed good performance for the transition event：the critical success indices（CSIs） were 0.89,0.61 and 0.71 for snow,wet-snow and rain,respectively.For snow events,the algorithm performance for dendrite and plate（CSIs = 1.0 and 1.0,respectively） was better than for needle and graupel（CSIs = 0.67 and 0.50,respectively）.

Raindrop Size Distribution Measurements at High Altitudes in the Northeastern Tibetan Plateau during Summer

Characteristics of raindrop size distribution during summer are studied by using the data from six Parsivel disdrometers located in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau.The analysis focuses on convective and stratiform precipitation at high altitudes from 2434 m to 4202 m.The results show that the contribution of stratiform and convective precipitation with rain rate between 1≤R<5 mm h^(-1) to the total precipitation increases with altitude,and the raindrop scale and number concentration of convective precipitation is larger than that for stratiform precipitation.The droplet size spectra of both stratiform and convective precipitation shows a single peak with a peak particle size between 0.31–0.50 mm,and they have essentially the same peak particle size and number concentration at the same altitude.The maximum spectral widths of stratiform clouds are between 4 mm and 5 mm,while those of convective clouds range from 4 mm to 8 mm.The Gamma distribution is more suitable than the Marshall-Palmer distribution in terms of the actual raindrop spectrum distribution.The stratiform precipitation particles are smaller with higher number concentration,while the opposite is true for the convective precipitation particles.The convective precipitation particles drop faster than stratiform precipitation particles when the particle size exceeds 2 mm,and the falling velocity of raindrops after standard curve fitting is underestimated during the observation period.Moreover,conventional radar estimation methods would underestimate the precipitation in the Northeastern Tibetan Plateau.

ON CALCULATIONS OF THE DRAG COEFFICIENT Cd AND THE FALL VELOCITY ω OF SPHERICAL BODIES

A host of authors have proposed some theoretical and experimental formulas in hydromechanics concerning the calculation of the drag coefficient Cd of spherical bodies. But all of the existing Cd formulas hold true only at small Reynolds numbers and are restricted within certain flowing range.As regards the fall velocity ω of spherical bodies, there is yet no formula applicable to each flowing range and to a direct expression and calculation of the fall velocity ω.In view of these, from N-S equations, and meanwhile based on measured data and complicated calculations, the author has developed and proposed the following results:(1) The drag coefficient (2) The dimensionless fall velocity where Es, Ω* and constants etc. are indicated in detail in this paper.Through laborious calculation in lgRe<5 larger range, the verification proves that our results well agree with the measured data. And the leading features of formulas of this paper are: (1) simple in form, (2) convenient for general use, (3) preferable on the part of the precision and applicability.Finally, to introduce this process and to illustrate the temperature effects on the fall velocity ω, some examples are discussed in this paper.

Beach morphodynamic characteristics and classifications on the straight coastal sectors in the west Guangdong

Currently beach morphodynamic classification is the most important foundation to conduct associated coastal geomorphological studies.This paper carried out beach morphodynamic classifications for 12 straight beaches on headland-bay coasts based on field survey and evaluated the applicability of the most widely used dimensional fall velocity parameter(Ω)and relative tidal range parameter(RTR).One reflective,five intermediate and six non-barred dissipative beaches were visually classified and sand size seemed to be a key factor to differentiate these beaches.The studied beaches were in relatively low wave energy environments(Hs<1 m)and the absolute deep-water wave energy level of P0=3 KWm-1 was supposed to a critical threshold to characterize the applicability of theΩand RTR parameters.These two morphodynamic parameters were applicable for the beaches with P0>3 KWm-1 and MSR<2 m.It was found that the model of the traditional winter-and-summer profiles was not applicable in the study area in despite of distinct wave seasonality.The studied beaches were more possible to hover around a limited range due to relatively low background wave environments and variability without considering typhoon impacts,which needs further research on actual breaker wave conditions and beach morphodynamic type responses to typhoon events.

ANALYSIS OF WATER QUALITY IN SHALLOW LAKES WITH A TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW-SEDIMENT MODEL

The governing equation for sediment pollutions was derived based on the turbulent diffusion of pollutants in shallow lakes. Coupled with shallow water equations, a depth-averaged 2-D flow and water quality model was developed. By means of the conservation law, a proposed differential equation for the change of sediment pollutants was linked to the 2-D equations. Under the framework of the finite volume method, the Osher approximate Riemann solver was employed to solve the equations. An analytical resolution was used to examine the model capabilities. Simulated results matched the exact solutions especially well. As an example, the simulation of CODMn in the Wuli Lake, a part of the Taihu lake, was conducted, which led to reasonable results. This study provides a new approach and a practical tool for the simulation of flow and water quality in shallow lakes.

The effect of pollen source on seed traits and dispersability in the heterocarpic annual Crepis sancta

Aims The evolution and expression of dispersal-related traits are intertwined with those of other life-history functions and are manifested within various physiological constraints.Such a relationship is predicted between inbreeding levels and dispersability,which may be anatomically and ontogenetically linked so that the selection pressures on one may affect the other.While both the effect of inbreeding on reproductive success and on dispersal strategies received much attention,only a few studies considered both simultaneously.Furthermore,such studies often rely on two dichotomic representations of breeding and dispersal:using selfing versus outcrossing as a representation of breeding level,and dispersal ratio as the sole representation of dispersal strategy.Methods Here,we used pollination experiments in the heterocarpic Crepis sancta(Asteraceae)to expand in two different manners on the common practice of using dichotomic representations of breeding and dispersal.First,we used pollination treatments that represent a continuum from selfing through pollination by kin to pollination by a distant neighbor.Second,we measured a whole set of continuous morphological and dispersal-related traits,in addition to measurements of reproductive success and dispersal ratio.Important Findings The proportion of developed capitula and the number of both dispersed and non-dispersed achenes were significantly lower in the self-pollination treatment in comparison to the outcrossed treatments.The effect of pollen sources on dispersal ratio was not statistically significant,though self-pollinated plants rarely produced non-dispersing seeds.Achene's biomass increased with distance between parent plants,but pappus width did not,leading to a nonsignificant effect of pollination on falling velocity.Overall,pollen source affected mainly traits that were associated with reproductive output,but it had no clear effect on predominately dispersal-related traits.Such differences in the response of reproduction and dispersal traits to variation in pollen source suggest that dispersal-related selection is probably weak and/or masked by other forces.