A continuous and long-term in-situ stress measuring method based on fiber optic. Part I: Theory of inverse differential strain analysis

A method for in-situ stress measurement via fiber optics was proposed. The method utilizes the relationship between rock mass elastic parameters and in-situ stress. The approach offers the advantage of long-term stress measurements with high spatial resolution and frequency, significantly enhancing the ability to measure in-situ stress. The sensing casing, spirally wrapped with fiber optic, is cemented into the formation to establish a formation sensing nerve. Injecting fluid into the casing generates strain disturbance, establishing the relationship between rock mass properties and treatment pressure.Moreover, an optimization algorithm is established to invert the elastic parameters of formation via fiber optic strains. In the first part of this paper series, we established the theoretical basis for the inverse differential strain analysis method for in-situ stress measurement, which was subsequently verified using an analytical model. This paper is the fundamental basis for the inverse differential strain analysis method.

Distributed fiber optic sensors for tunnel monitoring:A state-of-the-art review

Distributed fiber optic sensors(DFOSs)possess the capability to measure strain and temperature variations over long distances,demonstrating outstanding potential for monitoring underground infrastructure.This study presents a state-of-the-art review of the DFOS applications for monitoring and assessing the deformation behavior of typical tunnel infrastructure,including bored tunnels,conventional tunnels,as well as immersed and cut-and-cover tunnels.DFOS systems based on Brillouin and Rayleigh scattering principles are both considered.When implementing DFOS monitoring,the fiber optic cable can be primarily installed along transverse and longitudinal directions to(1)measure distributed strains by continuously adhering the fiber to the structure’s surface or embedding it in the lining,or(2)measure point displacements by spot-anchoring it on the lining surface.There are four critical aspects of DFOS monitoring,including proper selection of the sensing fiber,selection of the measuring principle for the specific application,design of an effective sensor layout,and establishment of robust field sensor instrumentation.These four issues are comprehensively discussed,and practical suggestions are provided for the implementation of DFOS in tunnel infrastructure monitoring.

A hardening load transfer function for rock bolts and its calibration using distributed fiber optic sensing

Confinement of rock bolts by the surrounding rock formation has long been recognized as a positive contributor to the pull-out behavior,yet only a few experimental works and analytical models have been reported,most of which are based on the global rock bolt response evaluated in pull-out tests.This paper presents a laboratory experimental setup aiming to capture the rock formation effect,while using distributed fiber optic sensing to quantify the effect of the confinement and the reinforcement pull-out behavior on a more local level.It is shown that the behavior along the sample itself varies,with certain points exhibiting stress drops with crack formation.Some edge effects related to the kinematic freedom of the grout to dilate are also observed.Regardless,it was found that the mid-level response is quite similar to the average response along the sample.The ability to characterize the variation of the response along the sample is one of the many advantages high-resolution fiber optic sensing allows in such investigations.The paper also offers a plasticity-based hardening load transfer function,representing a"slice"of the anchor.The paper describes in detail the development of the model and the calibration/determination of its parameters.The suggested model captures well the coupled behavior in which the pull-out process leads to an increase in the confining stress due to dilative behavior.

Fiber optic sensing and performance evaluation of a water conveyance tunnel with composite linings under super-high internal pressures

For long-distance water conveyance shield tunnels in operation,the high internal water pressure may cause excessive deformation of composite linings,affecting their structural integrity and serviceability.However,the deformation and failure characteristics of lining structures under internal water pressure are not well investigated in the literature,particularly for three-layer composite linings.This study presents an in situ experimental investigation on the response of two types of composite linings(i.e.separated and combined lining structures)subjected to internal pressures,in which a fiber optic nerve system(FONS)equipped with distributed strain and displacement sensing nerves was employed to monitor the performance of the two composite linings during testing.The experimental results clearly show that the damage of the tunnel lining under different internal pressures was mainly located in the self-compaction concrete layer.The separated lining structure responded more aggressively to the variations in internal pressures than the combined one.Moreover,two evaluation indices,i.e.radial displacement and effective stiffness coefficient,are proposed for describing the changes in the structural bearing performance.The effective stiffness coefficients of the two types of lining structures were reduced by 39.4%and 29.5%,respectively.Considering the convenience of field monitoring,it is suggested that the average strains at different layers can be used as characteristic parameters for estimating the health conditions of lining structures in service.The analysis results provide a practical reference for the design and health evaluation of water conveyance shield tunnels with composite linings.

A Fiber Optic Sensor for the Simultaneous Measurement of Dual-parameter Based on Hydrogel-immobilized Enzyme Complex

A novel fiber optic sensor based on hydrogel-immobilized enzyme complex was developed for the simultaneous measurement of dual-parameter,the leap from a single parameter detecting fiber optic sensor to a fiber optic sensor that can continuously detect two kinds of parameters was achieved.By controlling the temperature from high to low,the function of fiber sulfide sensor and fiber DCP sensor can be realized,so as to realize the continuous detection of dual-parameter.The different variables affecting the sensor performance were evaluated and optimized.Under the optimal conditions,the response curves,linear detection ranges,detection limits and response times of the dual-parameter sensor for testing sulfide and DCP were obtained,respectively.The sensor displays high selectivity,good repeatability and stability,which have good potentials in analyzing sulfide and DCP concentration of practical water samples.

Feasibility study on sinkhole monitoring with fiber optic strain sensing nerves

Anthropogenic activity-induced sinkholes pose a serious threat to building safety and human life nowadays.Real-time detection and early warning of sinkhole formation are a key and urgent problem in urban areas.This paper presents an experimental study to evaluate the feasibility of fiber optic strain sensing nerves in sinkhole monitoring.Combining the artificial neural network(ANN)and particle image velocimetry(PIV)techniques,a series of model tests have been performed to explore the relationship between strain measurements and sinkhole development and to establish a conversion model from strain data to ground settlements.It is demonstrated that the failure mechanism of the soil above the sinkhole developed from a triangle failure plane to a vertical failure plane with increasing collapse volume.Meanwhile,the soil-embedded fiber optic strain sensing nerves allowed deformation monitoring of the ground soil in real time.Furthermore,the characteristics of the measured strain profiles indicate the locations of sinkholes and the associated shear bands.Based on the strain data,the ANN model predicts the ground settlement well.Additionally,micro-anchored fiber optic cables have been proven to increase the soil-to-fiber strain transfer efficiency for large deformation monitoring of ground collapse.

Modeling, Simulation and Experimental Studies of Refractometric Fiber Optic Sensor

Refractometric fiber optic sensors have a number of applications in industry due to advantages like remote sensing ability, compact size, easy to fit, etc. A refractometric sensor contains a pair of parallel fibers and a gap between the sensor probe and reflector, wherein the liquid whose refractive index is to be measured is filled. This paper describes the importance of mathematical modeling of this sensor. Ray tracing approach is used to model the sensor mathematically. This mathematical model is generalized for any scenario which is useful to avoid tedious trial and error techniques to design the sensor prototype. Mathematical modelling is a useful tool to optimize the gap distance for a detection of refractive index of liquid. The model is developed and analyzed rigorously considering adulteration of diesel by kerosene where refractive index varies from 1.44 to 1.46. Simulation experiments are carried out to optimize the gap distance which is found to be 6.8 mm using both models. Experiments are carried out where sensor probe is fabricated and results are analyzed. It is observed that for suggested gap distance sensor output varies almost linear over the entire range.

Data Analysis and Modeling of Fiber Optic Gyroscope Drift

A data gathering system is designed for the interferometric fiber optic gyroscope (IFOG) of land strapdown inertial system. IFOG is tested and the testing curve is given. The test data of IFOG are analyzed with Allan variance method and each error coefficient is identified. Furthermore, a random drift error model for IFOG is built by the method of time series analysis. The conclusion provides supports for improving IFOG design and compensating for errors of IFOG in practice.

A bellow pressure fiber optic sensor for static ice pressure measurements

Static ice pressure affects safe operation of hydraulic structures. However, current detection methods are hindered by the following limitations： poor real-time performance and errors owing to the partial pressure of the surrounding wall on traditional electrical resistance strain bellow pressure sensors. We developed a fiber optic sensor with a special pressure bellow to monitor the static ice pressure on hydraulic structures and used the sensor to measure static pressure in laboratory ice growth and melting tests from -30℃ to 5℃. The sensor resolution is 0.02 kPa and its sensitivity is 2.74 × 10-4/kPa. The experiments suggest that the static ice pressure peaks twice during ice growth and melting. The first peak appears when the ice temperature drops to -15℃ owing to the liquid water to solid ice transition. The second peak appears at 0℃ owing to the thermal expansion of the ice during ice melting. The novel fiber optic sensor exhibits stable performance, high resolution, and high sensitivity and it can be used to monitor the static ice pressure during ice growth and melting.

Application of wavelet package filtering in the de-noising of fiber optic gyroscopes

To reduce the drift error existing in the output signal of fiber optic gyroscopes （FOG）, a mathematical model of the FOG output signal is set up; the error characteristics of the FOG output signal are analyzed, and semi-soft threshold filtering is chosen based on the comparison of hard threshold and soft threshold filtering. The semi-soft threshold wavelet package filtering method is applied in the filtering of the FOG output signal. Experiments of the stationary and dynamic FOG output signals filtered with the wavelet package analysis are carried out in a lab environment, respectively. Experiments done with the real-time measured FOG signal show that the method of semi-soft threshold wavelet package filtering reduces the mean square error from 5 （°）/h to 1 （°）/h, so it is effective in eliminating the white noises and the fractal noises existing in the FOG. The novel method proposed here is proved valid in reducing the FOG drift error, satisfying the technical demands of high precision and realtime processing.

PLASMA RESONANCE FIBER OPTIC SENSOR FOR CURE MONITORING OF EPOXY COMPOSITE

The plasma resonance fiber optic sensor has a research values in theory and is widely used in engineering because of its simple structure and high sensitivity. It is a simple and sensitive method to measure the refractive index with optical fiber plasma wave. We make use of this characteristic to manufacture the plasma resonance fiber optic sensor which can detect the cure of epoxy compo site. We study the method of testing the solutions which have different refractive index with plasma resonance fiber optic sensor. A fiber optic sensing probe which has reliable performance and convenient operation for detecting the refractive index has been designed. The system for detecting the solution refractive index is developed and used to measure the refractive index of epoxy during the different phases in the cure process. Result shows that this system is credible and stable, the parameters tested are in accord with the facts.

An Open-Loop Test of a Resonator Fiber Optic Gyro

The resonator fiber optic gyro （R-FOG） ,which utilizes a resonance frequency change due to the Sagnac effect,is a promising candidate for the next generation inertial rotation sensor. In this study, an open-loop R-FOG is set up using phase modulation spectroscopy. First,the demodulation curve is obtained using a lock-in amplifier. From the demodulation signal,a gyro dynamic range of ± 4.2rad/s is obtained. Then,using different phase modulation frequencies,the open-loop gyro output signal is measured when the gyro is rotated clockwise or counterclockwise. The bias drift as a function of time is also measured. The fluctuation of the output over 5s is about 0.02rad/s. The drift can be reduced by taking countermeasures against system noise.

Measuring Optical Length and Analyzing Accuracy Error Based on All-Fiber Optic Interferometer

An optical length measuring system base on all-fiber optic interferometer is proposed. The theoretical analysis indicates that, when the two branches of the interferometer are equal, the output have the maximum coherent intensity. Therefore, the optical length can be obtained by measuring the distance of collimator movement. Through the experiment and simulation, the impact of the signal-to-noise ratio and fluctuation of the coupling efficiency on null error has been obtained.

Distributed Fiber Optic Monitoring and Stability Analysis of a Model Slope under Surcharge Loading

In the discipline of geotechnical engineering, fiber optic sensor based distributed monitoring has played an increasingly important role over the past few decades. Compared with conventional sensors, fiber optic sensors have a variety of exclusive advantages, such as smaller size, higher precision, and better corrosion resistance. These innovative monitoring technologies have been successfully applied for performance monitoring of geo-structures and early warning of potential geo- hazards around the world. In order to investigate their ability to monitor slope stability problems, a medium-sized model of soil nailed slope has been constructed in laboratory. The fully distributed Brillouin optical time-domain analysis （BOTDA） sensing technology was employed to measure the horizontal strain distributions inside the model slope. During model construction, a specially designed strain sensing fiber was buried in the soil mass. Afterward, the surcharge loading was applied on the slope crest in stages using hydraulic jacks and a reaction frame. During testing, an NBX-6o5o BOTDA sensing interrogator was used to collect the fiber optic sensing data. The test results have been analyzed in detail, which shows that the fiber optic sensors can capture the progressive deformation and failure pattern of the model slope. The limit equilibrium analyses were also conducted to obtain the factors ofsafety of the slope under different surface loadings. It is found that the characteristic maximum strains can reflect the stability of the model slope and an empirical relationship was obtained, This study verified the effectiveness of the distributed BOTDA sensing technology in performance monitoring of slope.

Research on fiber optic gyro signal de-noising based on wavelet packet soft-threshold

Gyro＇s drift is not only the main drift error which influences gyro＇s precision but also the primary factor that affects gyro＇s reliability. Reducing zero drift and random drift is a key problem to the output of a gyro signal. A three-layer de-nosing threshold algorithm is proposed based on the wavelet decomposition to dispose the signal which is collected from a running fiber optic gyro （FOG）. The coefficients are obtained from the three-layer wavelet packet decomposition. By setting the high frequency part which is greater than wavelet packet threshold as zero, then reconstructing the nodes which have been filtered out noise and interruption, the soft threshold function is constructed by the coefficients of the third nodes. Compared wavelet packet de-noise with forced de-noising method, the proposed method is more effective. Simulation results show that the random drift compensation is enhanced by 13.1%, and reduces zero drift by 0.052 6°/h.

Effect of radiation-induced mean wavelength shift in optical fibers on the scale factor of an interferometric fiber optic gyroscope at a wavelength of 1300 nm

In order to analyze the effect of wavelength-dependent radiation-induced attenuation （RIA） on the mean trans- mission wavelength in optical fiber and the scale factor of interferometric fiber optic gyroscopes （IFOGs）, three types of polarization-maintaining （PM） fibers are tested by using a 60Co γ-radiation source. The observed different mean wave- length shift （MWS） behaviors for different fibers are interpreted by color-center theory involving dose rate-dependent absorption bands in ultraviolet and visible ranges and total dose-dependent near-infrared absorption bands. To evaluate the mean wavelength variation in a fiber coil and the induced scale factor change for space-borne IFOGs under low radiation doses in a space environment, the influence of dose rate on the mean wavelength is investigated by testing four germanium （Ge） doped fibers and two germanium-phosphorus （Ge-P） codoped fibers irradiated at different dose rates. Experimental results indicate that the Ge-doped fibers show the least mean wavelength shift during irradiation and their mean wavelength of optical signal transmission in fibers will shift to a shorter wavelength in a low-dose-rate radiation environment. Finally, the change in the scale factor of IFOG resulting from the mean wavelength shift is estimated and tested, and it is found that the significant radiation-induced scale factor variation must be considered during the design of space-borne IFOGs.

Filtering of long-term dependent fractal noise in fiber optic gyroscope

Stochastic noises of fiber optic gyroscope （FOG） mainly contain white noise and fractal noise whose long-term dependent component causes FOG a rather slow drift. In order to eliminate this component, a two-step filtering methodology is proposed. Firstly, fractional differencing （FD） method is introduced to trans-form fractal noise into fractional white noise based on the estima-tion of Hurst exponent for long-term dependent fractal process, which together with the existing white noise make up of a gener-alized white noise. Further, an improved denoising algorithm of wavelet maxima is developed to suppress the generalized white noise. Experimental results show that the basic noise terms of FOG greatly decrease, and especially the slow drift is restrained effectively. The proposed methodology provides a promising ap-proach for filtering long-term dependent fractal noise.

Utilizing a novel fiber optic technology to capture the axial responses of fully grouted rock bolts

Rock bolts are one of the primary support systems utilized in underground excavations within the civil and mining engineering industries. Rock bolts support the weakened rock mass adjacent to the opening of an excavation by fastening to the more stable, undisturbed formations further from the excavation. The overall response of such a support element has been determined under varying loading conditions in the laboratory and in situ experiments in the past four decades; however, due to the limitations with conventional monitoring methods of capturing strain, there still exists a gap in knowledge associated with an understanding of the geomechanical responses of rock bolts at the microscale. In this paper, we try to address this current gap in scientific knowledge by utilizing a newly developed distributed optical strain sensing(DOS) technology that provides an exceptional spatial resolution of 0.65 mm to capture the strain along the rock bolt. This DOS technology utilizes Rayleigh optical frequency domain reflectometry(ROFDR) which provides unprecedented insight into various mechanisms associated with axially loaded rebar specimens of different embedment lengths, grouting materials, borehole annulus conditions, and borehole diameters. The embedment length of the specimens was found to be the factor that significantly affected the loading of the rebar. The critical embedment length for the fully grouted rock bolts(FGRBs) was systematically determined to be430 mm. The results herein highlight the effects of the variation of these individual parameters on the geomechanical responses FGRBs.

Effect of radiation-induced color centers absorption in optical fibers on fiber optic gyroscope for space application

The effects of color centers＇ absorption on fibers and interferometric fiber optical gyroscopes（IFOGs） are studied in the paper. The irradiation induced attenuation（RIA） spectra of three types of polarization-maintaining fibers（PMFs）, i.e.,P-doped, Ge-doped, and pure silica, irradiated at 100 Gy and 1000 Gy are measured in a wavelength range from 1100 nm to1600 nm and decomposed according to the Gaussian model. The relationship of the color centers absorption intensity with radiation dose is investigated based on a power model. Furthermore, the effects of all color centers＇ absorption on RIA and mean wavelength shifts（MWS） at 1300 nm and 1550 nm are discussed respectively. Finally, the random walk coefficient（RWC） degradation induced from RIA and the scale factor error induced by MWS of the IFOG are simulated and tested at a wavelength of 1300 nm. This research will contribute to the applications of the fibers in radiation environments.

Remote structural health monitoring with serially multiplexed fiber optic acoustic emission sensors

Development and testing of a serially multiplexed fiber optic sensor system is described.The sensor differs from conventional fiber optic acoustic systems,as it is capable of sensing AE emissions at several points along the length of a single fiber.Multiplexing provides for single channel detection of cracks and their locations in large structural systems. An algorithm was developed for signal recognition and tagging of the AE waveforms for detection of' crack locations,Labora- tory experiments on plain concrete beams and post-tensioned FRP tendons were pcrlormed to evaluate the crack detection capability of the sensor system.The acoustic emission sensor was able to detect initiation,growth and location of the cracks in concrete as well as in the FRP tendons.The AE system is potentially suitable lot applications involving health monitoring of structures following an earthquake.