Development and Conservation of Glacier Tourist Resources——A Case Study of Bogda Glacier Park

Glacier is one kind of the most beautiful geological sightseeing in the world as well as a special kind of tourism resources.The characters of glacier tourism include scarcity,frangibility,localization of tourist activity,scien-tific connotation,and integrated function and value.The paper summarizes the latest researches in developing glacier tourism resources.Regarding the Bogda Glacier Park as an example,the authors analyze the characteristics of glacier tourism resources in detail and the conditions and potential threats of glacier tourism development.Suggestions on glacier tourism development and protection are given as follows:1) to plan function subarea scientifically and rea-sonably;2) to combine tourism,scientific research with ecological education;3) to take countermeasures of environ-mental protection;4) to integrate tourism resources and strengthening regional cooperation.Finally,emphases are put forward on resources conformity along the tourism line and cooperation of tourism management.The paper aims to seek after the coordination path in exploitation and protection of glacier tourism resources to guide the exploitation of other glacier tourism destinations.

Vegetation change as related to terrain factors at two glacier forefronts, Glacier National Park, Montana, U.S.A.

Glacier recession is a globally occurring trend. Although a rich body of work has documented glacial response to climate warming, few studies have assessed vegetation cover change in recently deglaciated areas, especially using geospatial technologies. Here, vegetation change at two glacier forefronts in Glacier National Park, Montana, U.S.A.was quantified through remote sensing analysis,fieldwork validation, and statistical modeling.Specifically, we assessed the spatial and temporal patterns of landcover change at the two glacier forefronts in Glacier National Park and determined the role of selected biophysical terrain factors(elevation, slope, aspect, solar radiation, flow accumulation, topographic wetness index, and surficial geology) on vegetation change(from nonvegetated to vegetated cover) at the deglaciated areas.Landsat imagery of the study locations in 1991, 2003,and 2015 were classified and validated using visual interpretation. Model results revealed geographic differences in biophysical correlates of vegetation change between the study areas, suggesting that terrain variation is a key factor affecting spatialtemporal patterns of vegetation change. At Jackson Glacier forefront, increases in vegetation over some portion or all of the study period were negatively associated with elevation, slope angle, and consolidated bedrock. At Grinnell Glacier forefront,increases in vegetation associated negatively with elevation and positively with solar radiation.Integrated geospatial and field approaches to the study of vegetation change in recently deglaciated terrain are recommended to understand and monitor processes and patterns of ongoing habitat change in rapidly changing mountain environments.

On the Limits to Manage Air-Quality in Glacier Bay

In Glacier Bay National Park, about 95% of the visitors come on board of cruise ships. The National Park Service has the mandate to manage park resources like air quality and visibility, while ensuring visitation. To understand the impact of cruise-ship emissions on the overall concentrations in Glacier Bay, emission-source contribution ratios (ESCR) and the interaction of pollutant from local and/or distant sources were determined using results from four WRF/Chem simulations of the 2008 tourist season (May 15 to September 15). These simulations only differed by the emissions considered: Biogenic emissions only (CLN), biogenic plus activity-based cruise-ship emissions (REF), biogenic plus all anthropogenic emissions except cruise-ship emissions (RETRO), and all aforementioned emissions (ALL). In general, ESCRs differed among pollutants. Interaction between pollutants from cruise-ship emissions and species from other sources including those advected into the bay decreased towards the top of the atmospheric boundary layer. Pollutants from different sources interacted strongest (lowest) in the west arm of the fjord where ships berthed for glacier viewing (in areas of the bay without cruise-ship travel). Pollutant interaction both enhanced/reduced NO2 concentrations by 10% (4 - 8 ppt absolute). Except for ozone, cruise-ship emissions on average governed air quality in the bay. On days with cruise-ship visits, they contributed between 60% and 80% of the bay-wide daily mean SO2 and NO2 concentrations below 1 km height. On days without visits, cruise-ship contributions still reached 40% due to previous visits. Highest cruise-ship ESCRs occurred during stagnant weather conditions. Despite the fact that all coarse particulate matter was due to anthropogenic sources, worst visibility conditions were due to meteorology. The results suggest limits as well as windows for managing air quality and visibility in Glacier Bay.

Fate of Particulate Matter from Cruise-Ship Emissions in Glacier Bay during the 2008 Tourist Season

Simulations from the Weather Research and Forecasting Model, inline coupled with chemistry, were used to examine the fate of particulate matter with diameter of 10 μm or less (PM10) in Glacier Bay, Alaska during the 2008 tourist season. The simulations demonstrated that mesoscale and synoptic scale weather systems affect the residence time of PM10, the magnitude of concentrations, and its transport in and out of Glacier Bay. Strong inversions exceeding 2 K (100 m)-1 cause notable trapping of pollutants from cruise-ship emissions, increasing PM10 concentrations up to 43% compared to days with cruise-ship visits without the presence of an inversion. Inversions occurred locally in Glacier Bay on 42% of the 124-day tourist season with an average lifetime of 9 h. Pollutants occasionally originated from outside the National Park when southerly winds advected pollutants from ship traffic in Icy Strait. Occasionally, orographically forced lifting over the Fairweather Mountains transported pollutants from the Gulf of Alaska into Glacier Bay. While hourly (daily) PM10 concentrations reached ~44 μg·m-3 (22 μg·m-3) in some areas of Glacier Bay, overall seasonal average PM10 concentrations were below 2 μg·m-3. Despite up to two cruise-ship visits per day, Glacier Bay still has pristine air quality. Surface and upper air meteorological state variables were evaluated through an extensive network of surface and radiosonde observations, which demonstrated that the model was able to capture the meteorological conditions well.

Anticipated Inversion and Visibility Conditions over Glacier Bay with a Changing Climate

A RCP4.5 simulation from the Community Earth System Model was downscaled by the Weather Research and Forecasting Model, inline coupled with chemistry, to examine how climate change may affect inversions and visibility in Glacier Bay in the presence of cruise-ship visitations. Mean downscaled climate conditions for the tourist seasons for 2006-2012 were compared with downscaled conditions for 2026-2032 with identical cruise-ship entries and operating conditions thereby isolating pollutant retention and visibility differences caused by atmospheric climate change. Notable changes in future temperature, humidity, precipitation, and wind-speed occurred for large areas of Southeast Alaska and the Gulf of Alaska, although the anticipated differences were less pronounced in Glacier Bay due to the presence of the large glaciers and ice fields. While increased sensible heat and water vapor in the atmospheric boundary layer contributed to on average 4.5 h reduced inversion duration in Glacier Bay, the on average 0.23 m·s-1 reduced wind speeds increased inversion frequency by 4% on average. The future on average wetter conditions and altered precipitation patterns in Glacier Bay affected the removal of gases and particulate matter emitted by cruise ships locally or advected from areas outside the park. Season-spatial averaged visibility in Glacier Bay remained the same. However, visibility was degraded in the future scenario later in the season and slightly improved during spring. The warmer conditions contributed to decreased visibility indirectly by tieing up less NO2 in PAN and increasing biogenic NOx emissions. The wetter conditions contributed to reduced visibility in the last third of the tourist season.

Impacts of Cruise-Ship Entry Quotas on Visibility and Air Quality in Glacier Bay

Managers at Glacier Bay National Park must annually determine the allowable number of cruise-ship entries into the park. This decision considers how differences in visitor volume may affect park resources. This study quantified the impacts to air quality and visibility under different ship quotas using simulations with the Weather Research and Forecasting model inline coupled with chemistry. Results of the simulation assuming two entries per day for May 15 to September 15, 2008 (QTA;248 ship entries representing a 35% increase) were compared to those of the 2008 cruise-ship activity (REF;184) during that timeframe. A simulation without anthropogenic emissions (CLN) served to assess the overall impacts of cruise-ship emissions on visibility and air quality in Glacier Bay. Compared to REF, the increased entry quotas shifted chemical regimes and aerosol composition, depending upon thermodynamical conditions, and ambient concentrations. On days with notable regime shifts, sulfur-dioxide concentrations deceased while ammonium-sulfate aerosol concentrations increased. The increased quotas also altered the fine-to-coarse aerosol ratios in both directions despite constant ratio of fine-to-coarse aerosol emissions. In Glacier Bay, the days with worst visibility coincided with high relative humidity, although this relationship varied by scenario. On the 20% worst days, mean visibility was slightly better in CLN (mean haze index over Glacier Bay waters = 2.9 dv) than in REF ( = 3.1 dv). While increased emissions in QTA reduced mean visibility by 0.1 dv, the 10th, 50th and 90th percentile of haze indices remained identical to those in REF. Best (worst) visibility occurred on the same days in REF and QTA due to emission impacts, but on different days than in CLN because relative humidity solely governed visibility in CLN. While calm wind played no role for visibility in CLN, wind speed gained similar importance for visibility as relative humidity in REF and QTA. Overall, increasing ship quotas would only marginally affect air quality and visibility as compared to REF, although even small changes in these parameters need careful consideration in the context of conserving the values of Glacier Bay.

海螺沟冰川公园的开发与保护

海螺沟冰川是世界不可多得的自然遗产。随着海螺沟冰川公园旅游业的蓬勃发展和资源本身所处的地质环境条件 ,在旅游开发的过程中 ,出现了一些潜在的环境问题。通过分析这些环境问题 ,针对性提出了相应的环境保护对策。

海螺沟冰川森林公园的生物资源及保护利用

海螺沟冰川森林公园地处四川盆地与青藏高原的过渡地带,自然条件复杂,海拔相对高差达6 469 m,巨大的垂直高差造成了完整和复杂多样的植被垂直带谱,7个典型植被带蕴藏了大量的生物资源。在海螺沟及其周边林区大约有2 000种维管植物可作材用、药用、油料、观赏等。沟内已经确认的珍稀植物39种,其中有17种国家明令保护的珍稀野生濒危植物和2种栽培的保护植物。包括周边林区共有野生脊椎动物350多种,其中资源动物200种,包括兽类69种、鸟类110种、爬行类6种、两栖类6种、鱼类9种,同时,昆虫资源也相当丰富。本区珍稀濒危动物种类丰富,计有38种,其中国家保护动物28种。本文最后提出了生物资源保护措施和开发利用意见。

玉龙雪山景区游客分布特征分析

基于2001-2009年玉龙雪山景区索道接待人次数据,从客流量的年度变化、季度变化、黄金周变化等方面分析了景区客流时空分布特征。主要结果如下：（1）景区客流量随着时间变化呈逐年上升的趋势且增幅明显;（2）夏季为玉龙雪山景区的旺季,冬季为淡季,景区内部各景点季节性差异大小为：牦牛坪〉冰川公园〉云杉坪。（3）黄金周客流量变化呈＂单峰＂型,中期人数最多;最大日客流量为年内日平均客流量的2.43倍。各景点＂五一＂、＂十一＂客流分布集中程度相似,牦牛坪的变化程度最大,冰川公园最小。（4）景区客流量空间分布集中程度高,主要集中于云杉坪和冰川公园。

海螺沟冰川森林公园区的生物资源及其保护利用

通过对公园区自然地理概况的介绍及生物资源组成的记述,较为详尽地论述了四川省海螺沟冰川森林公园区的生物资源状况。进而针对其特点,提出了保护该区生物资源的6条措施,并从保护与合理利用相结合的角度出发,阐述了该区域生物资源的开发利用策略。

玉龙雪山冰川公园的旅游资源特色及其保护

本文总结了云南省玉龙雪山以现代冰川和古冰川遗迹为主的旅游资源特色，探讨了现代冰川和古冰川遗迹的旅游观赏价值，并结合全球气候变化的趋势。

四川海螺沟冰川森林公园旅游客流特征研究

对四川省海螺沟冰川森林公园游客的数量动态特征进行分析,结果表明:公园年游客数量从2000-2011年呈逐步上升趋势,增幅增大;公众假期、冰川景观质量是影响公园月客流量的主要原因,5月、8月、10月、周末都是客流量集中期;景区对外交通、客源地经济水平是影响公园旅游客源分布的重要因素,公园客源地分布主要集中在四川省内(46.52%)及重庆(26%)、广东、上海等省外发达地区。

四川省泸定县海螺沟冰川森林公园游客行为特征研究

综合运用调查法和分析法对四川海螺沟冰川森林公园(以下简称"海螺沟")游客行为特征进行研究,重点分析了游客属性、旅游动机、出游时间、出游方式等特征,并针对性的对海螺沟旅游产品开发与宣传、森林生态旅游的可持续发展等方面提出了相关建议。

黄山世界地质公园地质景观资源类型及开发与保护

地质遗迹是地球赐予人类最宝贵的财富之一。拥有"世界自然与文化双遗产"及"世界地质公园"称号的黄山,蕴含了丰富的地质遗迹景观,尤以花岗岩峰林景观、地质生态系统景观(绝壁松)和第四纪冰川遗迹最为著名,极具观赏价值和科学研究价值。文章按地质遗迹的成因特点,将黄山的地质景观类型做了细致的划分,同时对黄山地质遗迹资源的开发和保护提出了建议。

海螺沟地质公园低碳旅游开发模式探讨

在全球性气候变暖的背景下,冰川消融已成为人类面临的重大环境问题。海螺沟冰川是我国典型的季风海洋性冰川,也是世界范围内最完整的山岳冰川,具有高度的观赏性和科研性。据观察,近百年来该冰川表现出持续消融的状态,保护已迫在眉睫。从规模、结构及分布3个方面论述了海螺沟冰川的地质特征,并探讨了冰川的形成和物质平衡的条件。根据温度、海拔以及表面覆盖物质成份3项对冰川消融起主要作用的因子,针对海螺沟冰川消融的严峻现状和冰川地质遗迹开发和保护具体情况,提出低碳旅游产品开发方案与保护建议。

四川海螺沟冰川森林公园可持续旅游发展研究

森林公园是国家具有代表性或特殊保护价值的人文与自然资源地区,发展旅游是主要功能之一。以四川海螺沟冰川森林公园为例,介绍了海螺沟所在地区的自然地理和社会经济概况,提炼出海螺沟的五大资源特色,分析了旅游发展的现状,指出了海螺沟旅游发展存在的问题。海螺沟应从开发多元化的森林旅游产品、提升旅游服务基础设施、完善公园解说系统规划与建设、加强环境管理与监测工作等四个方面进行改进与提升,最终实现公园旅游的可持续发展。

世界最壮观的温带雨林──奥林匹克国家公园

奥林匹克国家公园位于美国华盛顿州西北角的奥林匹克半岛上，它由高山冰川覆盖区、60英里未开发的荒芜海岸、蔚为壮观的温带雨林三个不同的生态系统组成，是美国国家荒野体系的一部分，也是美国目前保护最好的世界自然遗产之一。

基奈峡湾国家公园自然地理特征

国家公园生态系统是地貌研究的重要组成部分,通过研究公园地理特征有助于进一步了解中南阿拉斯加的地貌特征。在梳理公园所受地质作用以及气候等相关知识的前提下,对基奈峡湾国家公园自然地理特征进行了分析。指出:(1)整个公园由太平洋板块楔入阿拉斯加时洋底推挤起来的岩体组成。山地地形主导了公园的景观,高大的山脉使降雨和降雪量很大。来自海洋的湿润空气与高大的山体遭遇时促成的冰川现在正在消退,公园的整个海岸线也正在缓慢下陷。(2)基奈峡湾国家公园的气候主要是海洋性的,富含水汽的风以及从东亚流向阿拉斯加湾的太平洋洋流的相对温暖的水体一起作用,塑造出本公园温和、湿润的气象条件。(3)海洋、山脉、冰川以及上述三者不断的变化,将本公园变成一个丰富多彩的生态王国。由于绝大多数地方海拔较高,所以基奈峡湾国家公园的地理景观以冰川和苔原为主。

兰格尔-圣伊利亚斯国家公园自然地理特征

国家公园生态系统是地貌研究的重要组成部分,通过研究公园地理特征有助于进一步了解中南阿拉斯加的地貌特征。在梳理公园所受地质作用以及冰川作用等相关知识的前提下,对兰格尔-圣伊利亚斯国家公园自然地理特征进行了分析。指出:(1)兰格尔-圣伊利亚斯国家公园的地质状况极其复杂。它跨过了好几个气象区和好几条山脉,含有北美洲除格陵兰以外的最大的冰川。兰格尔-圣伊利亚斯国家公园有几条大断层穿过,如德奈利断层、图兹楚恩达断层、博德岭断层。兰格尔-圣伊利亚斯国家公园中各地质体之间的边界很明显,公园的绝大部分位于楚加奇地质体和兰格利亚地质的沉积岩之上。(2)这一地区早在1000万年前就已被冰川覆盖,公园里还有许多重要的冰川,如马拉斯皮纳冰川、肯尼科特冰川和鲁特冰川。(3)兰格尔-圣伊利亚斯国家公园存在两个气候区:公园的绝大部分区域属于极端的大陆性气候区,南部边缘属于山地海洋性气候区,夏季非常炎热(如果有太阳的话),而冬季非常寒冷。

Plant functional traits and microbes vary with position on striped periglacial patterned ground at Glacier National Park, Montana

The retreating snowfields and glaciers of Glacier National Park, Montana, USA, present alpine plants with changes in habitat and hydrology. The adjacent and relic periglacial patterned ground consists of solifluction terraces of green, vegetation-rich stripes alternating with sparsely vegetated brown stripes. We established georeferenced transects on striped periglacial patterned ground for long-term monitoring and data collection on species distribution and plant functional traits at Siyeh Pass and at Piegan Pass at Glacier National Park. We documented species distribution and calculated the relative percent cover(RPC) of qualitative functional traits and used 16 S rRNA from soil samples to characterize microbial distribution on green and brown stripes. Plant species distribution varied significantly and there were key differences in microbial distribution between the green and brown stripes. The rare arctic-alpine plants Draba macounii, Papaver pygmaeum, and Sagina nivalis were restricted to brown stripes, where the RPC of xeromorphic taprooted species was significantly higher at the leading edge of the Siyeh Pass snowfield. Brown stripes had a higher percentage of the thermophilic bacteria Thermacetogenium and Thermoflavimicrobium. Green stripes were co-dominated by the adventitiously-rooted dwarf shrubs Salix arctica and the possibly N-fixing Dryas octopetala. Green stripes were inhabited by Krummholz and seedlings of Abies lasiocarpa and Pinus albicaulus. Prosthecobacter, a hydrophilic bacterial genus, was more abundant on the green stripes, which had 6,524 bacterial sequences in comparison to the 1,183 sequences from the brown stripes. While further research can determine which functional traits are critical for these plants, knowledge of the current distribution of plant species and their functional traits can be used in predictive models of the responses of alpine plants to disappearing snowfields and glaciers. This research is important in conservation of rare arctic-alpine species on periglacial patterned ground.