Health status and health systems financing in the MENA region:roadmap to universal health coverage

Background:Since the declaration of the Millennium Development Goals(MDGs)in 1990,many countries of the Middle East and North Africa(MENA)region made some improvements in maternal and child health and in tackling communicable diseases.The transition to the global agenda of Sustainable Development Goals brings new opportunities for countries to move forward toward achieving progress for better health,well-being,and universal health coverage.This study provides a profile of health status and health financing approaches in the MENA region and their implications on universal health coverage.Methods:Time-series data on socioeconomics,health expenditures,and health outcomes were extracted from databases and reports of the World Health Organization,the World Bank and the United Nations Development Program and analyzed using Stata 12 statistical software.Countries were grouped according to the World Bank income categories.Descriptive statistics,tables and charts were used to analyze temporal changes and compare the key variables with global averages.Results:Non-communicable diseases(NCDs)and injuries account for more than three quarters of the disabilityadjusted life years in all but two lower middle-income countries(Sudan and Yemen).Prevalence of risk factors(raised blood glucose,raised blood pressure,obesity and smoking)is higher than global averages and counterparts by income group.Total health expenditure(THE)per capita in most of the countries falls short of global averages for countries under similar income category.Furthermore,growth rate of THE per capita has not kept pace with the growth rate of GDP per capita.Out-of-pocket spending(OOPS)in all but the high-income countries in the group exceeds the threshold for catastrophic spending implying that there is a high risk of households getting poorer as a result of paying for health care.Conclusion:The alarmingly high prevalence of NCDs and injuries and associated risk factors,health spending falling short of the GDP and GDP growth rate,and high OOPS pose serious challenges for universal health coverage.Using multi-sector interventions,countries should develop and implement evidence-informed health system financing roadmaps to address these obstacles and move forward toward universal health coverage.

Challenges faced by community health nurses to achieve universal health coverage in Myanmar:A mixed methods study

Objective:This study aimed to identify the challenges of community health nurses(CHNs)in delivering effective community health care to achieve universal health coverage(UHC)in Myanmar.Methods:A total of 30 CHNs from township health centers in the northeastern,southern,and western parts of Myanmar were purposefully recruited for quantitative and qualitative interviews.Quantitative data were processed using Microsoft Excel software,and qualitative data were analyzed using thematic analysis.This study is registered with researchregistry6201.Results:Around the country,30 CHNs uncovered their hardships in implementing primary health care to achieve UHC.Over 90%of the participants agreed to the problem of inadequate health infrastructure,while half of them felt unmotivated when they encountered role conflicts among various cadres of healthcare providers and poor opportunities for career promotion.Major problems arose from the lack of standard professional education at the entry point to community settings because most CHNs did not achieve specialized training in providing public health services.Complications are incapable of evaluating health services for policy-making and the inability to conduct health research to develop evidencebased practices.Insecure work and living conditions,unsupportive community relationships,and undereducation in professional practices were supportive major themes explored by CHNs to achieve a deeper understanding of the barriers to UHC.Not only the health system itself but also the population and other geographical factors have contributed to many challenges to CHNs.Conclusion:Myanmar’s CHNs face many challenges in achieving UHC.These challenges are not confined to the health sector.Some situations,such as geographical barriers and transportation problems,remain persistent challenges for healthcare providers.This study highlights the fact that current health systems should be strengthened by qualified healthcare providers and sufficient infrastructure.Meanwhile,public empowerment plays a critical role in promoting health development.

Assessment of Health Purchasing Functions for Universal Health Coverage in Nigeria: Evidence from Grey Literature and Key Informant Interviews

Objective: Out of pocket expenditure is the primary means of financing healthcare in middle and low-income countries. The 2021 government health expenditure in Nigeria at 4.52% falls short of the 15% recommendation of the 2001 Abuja Declaration. This paper examines healthcare purchasing in Nigeria, in order to explore how resources were allocated and create better insight into healthcare purchasing for universal health coverage. Data Source/Study Setting: The study was conducted in the Federal Capital Territory and three states—Lagos, Enugu and Sokoto. Study Design: A cross sectional method was used to examine health purchasing functions in Nigeria. Key informant interviews and review of grey and published literature on health financing in the selected study areas. Data Collection Methods: Primary data were collected from relevant stakeholders across the selected study areas, using a structured interview guide. A search of grey and published literature gave a total of 57 references. Principal Findings: The NHIS has a clearly articulated benefit package, for its formal sector and pro-poor BHCPF program. NHIS covers only about 5% of the Nigerian population. BHCPF (SOML) program targets the bottom 40% of Nigerians on paper, but there is no specific design for reaching them. The NHIS uses both public and private sector providers. It is not clear which providers are used for the BHCPF (SOML) program. The NHIS uses actuarially calculated capitations for primary care services and market-based fee-for-service rates for reimbursing secondary and tertiary care. BHCPF (SOML) uses a macroscale pay-for-performance mechanism to reward states achieving specific health outcomes. Conclusion: Health purchasing functions have serious implication for UHC. However, health care provision in Nigeria is not pro-poor and government efforts do not promote efficiency. Available option is prioritization of health initiatives that ensure value for money through performance-based financing and partnering with the private sector.

Universal Health Coverage in Somalia: Charting the Path to Equitable Healthcare Financing and Governance

Somalia is a country facing numerous challenges in achieving universal health coverage (UHC) and ensuring adequate healthcare financing, This article explores the complexities and obstacles that Somalia must overcome in its pursuit of UHC, the paper begins by providing an overview of the current healthcare landscape in Somalia, highlighting the lack of infrastructure, political instability, and limited financial resources that hinder the establishment of a comprehensive and equitable healthcare system. It then examines the role of international aid and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in filling the healthcare gap, while emphasizing the need for a more sustainable, domestically financed solution. Drawing on a range of data sources and case studies, the article proposes a multi-faceted approach to strengthen healthcare governance, improve resource allocation, and foster local capacity building, the study delves into the unique obstacles that Somalia faces, including a lack of infrastructure, political instability, and limited financial resources, which hinder the establishment of a comprehensive and equitable healthcare system. The paper also examines the role of international aid and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in filling the healthcare gap, while highlighting the need for a more sustainable, domestically financed solution. The findings underscore the importance of political commitment, international cooperation, and innovative financing mechanisms in advancing towards UHC in Somalia, providing valuable insights for other low resource, conflict affected settings.

ICT-Enabled Universal Health Coverage Monitoring and Evaluation in Sub-Saharan Health Facilities： Study in 8 Reference Hospitals of Rwanda, Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Mali

Abstract： UHC （Universal Health Coverage） is at the center of the Sustainable Development Agenda. In this study, the authors made an evaluation of the indicators allowing quantification of the impact of health coverage schemes on patients, applied in 4 sub-Saharan Africa countries： Rwanda, Burundi, the DRC （Democratic Republic of Congo） and Mall After an analysis of potential health coverage indicators, the most relevant ones were calculated on the basis of patient administrative and health insurance data, collected via OpenClinic GA, an HIMS （health information management system） used in 8 sub-Saharan hospitals during the period 2010-2016. The results show that the PHSC （patient health services coverage） rate is highest （81.5%-92.7%） in the 2 hospitals of Rwanda and in 2 hospitals of Burundi （37.7%-77.7%）. The PHSP （patient health service payment） rate as the proportion of costs paid by the patient versus total health service costs is below the 25% threshold recommended by WHO only for the 2 hospitals in Rwanda. The POOP （patient out-of-pocket） payment is below the threshold of 180USD per patient per year for all hospitals. The HIEXs （health insurance expenditures） are funded by the university private insurance （86% of expenses covered） in 2 university teaching hospitals in DRC, by CBHI （community based health insurance） （69%） in 2 hospitals in Rwanda, by the free care policy （77%） in 2 hospitals in Burundi and by the SHI （social health insurance） （100%） in the 2 hospitals in Mali. PHSC in the 8 reference hospitals reflects the national trend towards UHC in each country. With this study, we demonstrate the possibility to assess the degree of UHC in developing countries, by a methodology based on indicators calculated via information extraction from routine data in electronic health records.

Health financing for universal health coverage in Sub-Saharan Africa:a systematic review

Background:Universal health coverage(UHC)embedded within the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals,is defined by the World Health Organization as all individuals having access to required health services,of sufficient quality,without suffering financial hardship.Effective strategies for financing healthcare are critical in achieving this goal yet remain a challenge in Sub-Saharan Africa(SSA).This systematic review aims to determine reported health financing mechanisms in SSA within the published literature and summarize potential learnings.Methods:A systematic review was conducted aligned with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses(PRISMA)reporting guidelines.On 19 to 30 July 2019,MEDLINE,EMBASE,Web of Science,Global Health Database,the Cochrane Library,Scopus and JSTOR were searched for literature published from 2005.Studies describing health financing approaches for UHC in SSA were included.Evidence was synthesised in form of a table and thematic analysis.Results:Of all records,39 papers were selected for inclusion.Among the included studies,most studies were conducted in Kenya(n=7),followed by SSA as a whole(n=6)and Nigeria(n=5).More than two thirds of the selected studies reported the importance of equitable national health insurance schemes for UHC.The results indicate that a majority of health care revenue in SSA is from direct out-of-pocket payments.Another common financing mechanism was donor funding,which was reported by most of the studies.The average quality score of all studies was 81.6%,indicating a high appraisal score.The interrater reliability Cohen’s kappa score,κ=0.43(p=0.002),which showed a moderate level of agreement.Conclusions:Appropriate health financing strategies that safeguard financial risk protection underpin sustainable health services and the attainment of UHC.It is evident from the review that innovative health financing strategies in SSA are needed.Some limitations of this review include potentially skewed interpretations due to publication bias and a higher frequency of publications included from two countries in SSA.Establishing evidence-based and multi-sectoral strategies tailored to country contexts remains imperative.

Building quality primary health care development in the new era towards universal health coverage:a Beijing initiative

Primary health care(PHC)is the most effective way to improve people’s health and well-being,and primary care services should act as the cornerstone of a resilient health system and the foundation of universal health coverage.To promote high quality development of PHC,an International Symposium on Quality Primary Health Care Development was held on December 4-5,2023 in Beijing,China,and the participants have proposed and advocated the Beijing Initiative on Quality Primary Health Care Development.The Beijing Initiative calls on all countries to carry out and strengthen 11 actions:fulfill political commitment and accountability;achieve“health in all policies”through multisectoral coordination;establish sustainable financing;empower communities and individuals;provide community-based integrated care;promote the connection and integration of health services and social services through good governance;enhance training,allocation and motivation of health workforce,and medical education;expand application of traditional and alternative medicine for disease prevention and illness healing;empower PHC with digital technology;ensure access to medicinal products and appropriate technologies;and last,strengthen global partnership and international health cooperation.The Initiative will enrich the content of quality development of PHC,build consensus,and put forward policies for quality development of PHC in China in the new era,which are expected to make contributions in accelerating global actions.

Leaving no one behind in armed conflict-affected settings of Africa:is universal health coverage a possibility or mirage?

The world is off track six years to the 2030 deadline for attaining the sustainable development goals and universal health coverage.This is particularly evident in Africa’s armed conflict-affected and humanitarian settings,where perva-sively weak health systems,extreme poverty and inequitable access to the social dimensions and other determinants of health continue to pose significant challenges to universal health coverage.In this article,we review the key issues and main barriers to universal health coverage in such settings.While our review shows that the current health service delivery and financing models in Africa’s armed conflict-affected settings provide some opportunities to leapfrog progress,others are threats which could hinder the attainment of universal health coverage.We propose four key approaches focused on addressing the barriers to the three pillars of universal health coverage,strengthening public disaster risk management,bridging the humanitarian-development divide,and using health as an enabler of peace and sustainable development as panacea to addressing the universal health coverage challenge in these settings.The principles of health system strengthening,primary health care,equity,the right to health,and gender mainstreaming should underscore the implementation of these approaches.Moving forward,we call for more advocacy,dialogue,and research to better define and adapt these approaches into a realistic package of interventions for attaining uni-versal health coverage in Africa’s armed conflict-affected settings.

Building a resilient health system for universal health coverage and health security:a systematic review

Background Resilient health system(RHS)is crucial to achieving universal health coverage(UHC)and health secu-rity.However,little is known about strategies towards RHS to improve UHC and health security.This systematic review aims to synthesise the literature to understand approaches to build RHS toward UHC and health security.Methods A systematic search was conducted including studies published from 01 January 2000 to 31 Decem-ber 2021.Studies were searched in three databases(PubMed,Embase,and Scopus)using search terms under four domains:resilience,health system,universal health coverage,and health security.We critically appraised articles using Rees and colleagues’quality appraisal checklist to assess the quality of papers.A systematic narrative synthesis was conducted to analyse and synthesise the data using the World Health Organization’s health systems building block framework.Results A total of 57 articles were included in the final review.Context-based redistribution of health workers,task-shifting policy,and results-based health financing policy helped to build RHS.High political commitment,commu-nity-based response planning,and multi-sectorial collaboration were critical to realising UHC and health security.On the contrary,lack of access,non-responsive,inequitable healthcare services,poor surveillance,weak leadership,and income inequalities were the constraints to achieving UHC and health security.In addition,the lack of basic healthcare infrastructures,inadequately skilled health workforces,absence of clear government policy,lack of clarity of stakeholder roles,and uneven distribution of health facilities and health workers were the challenges to achieving UHC and health security.Conclusions Advanced healthcare infrastructures and adequate number of healthcare workers are essential to achieving UHC and health security.However,they are not alone adequate to protect the health system from poten-tial failure.Context-specific redistribution of health workers,task-shifting,result-based health financing policies,and integrated and multi-sectoral approaches,based on the principles of primary health care,are necessary for build-ing RHS toward UHC and health security.

Factors determining membership in community-based health insurance in West Africa:a scoping review

Background:In many low-income countries,households bear most of the health care costs.Community-based health insurance(CBHI)schemes have multiplied since the 1990s in West Africa.They have significantly improved their members’access to health care.However,a large proportion of users are reluctant to subscribe to a local CBHI.Identifying the major factors affecting membership will be useful for improving CBHI coverage.The objective of this research is to obtain a general overview of existing evidence on the determinants of CBHI membership in West Africa.Methods:A review of studies reporting on the factors determining membership in CBHI schemes in West Africa was conducted using guidelines developed by the Joanna Briggs Institute.Several databases were searched(PubMed,ScienceDirect,Global Health database,Embase,EconLit,Cairn.info,BDPS,Cochrane database and Google Scholar)for relevant articles available by August 15,2022,with no methodological or linguistic restrictions in electronic databases and grey literature.Results:The initial literature search resulted in 1611 studies,and 10 studies were identified by other sources.After eliminating duplicates,we reviewed the titles of the remaining 1275 studies and excluded 1080 irrelevant studies based on title and 124 studies based on abstracts.Of the 71 full texts assessed for eligibility,32 additional papers were excluded(not relevant,outside West Africa,poorly described results)and finally 39 studies were included in the synthesis.Factors that negatively affect CBHI membership include advanced age,low education,low household income,poor quality of care,lack of trust in providers and remoteness,rules considered too strict or inappropriate,low trust in administrators and inadequate information campaign.Conclusions:This study shows many lessons to be learned from a variety of countries and initiatives that could make CBHI an effective tool for increasing access to quality health care in order to achieve universal health coverage.Cover-age through CBHI schemes could be improved through communication,improved education and targeted financial support.

Non-inclusion of certified herbal medicines in the National Health Insurance Scheme affects patient utilization of the integrated herbal medicine services in Ghana

Background:In 2011,Ghana piloted the integration of herbal medicine services into mainstream health care delivery in selected government hospitals across the country.To date,however,no single certified herbal drug is generally covered by the national health insurance scheme.This study evaluated the implications of out-of-pocket payment for prescriptions on the patronage of herbal medicine units in 3 selected government hospitals within Kumasi Metropolis.Methods:A cross-sectional study on 413 participants was performed using a semi-structured questionnaire.Results:The majority of study respondents were female(54%),and the median age was 35 years.Most participants(83.1%)were aware that herbal medicine was integrated in the mainstream health care system of the country.Regarding the costs of certified herbal drugs,51.5%of respondents considered them very expensive;72.1%of the respondents believed that the costs of certified herbal drugs adversely affected the utilization of herbal units at government hospitals,which produced a positive correlation(r=0.5498).A total of 99.5%of the respondents recommended the inclusion of certified herbal drugs on the national health insurance drug list.Conclusion:This study revealed that the costs of certified herbal medicines negatively affect utilization of herbal units at government hospitals.To improve the utilization of herbal units,certified herbal drugs dispensed at these units must thus be included in the national health insurance drug list.

How to Integrate Palliative Care Into Primary Health Care

Integration of Palliative Care into Primary Health Care will have a substantial amount of positive impact on Health Care in Nakuru County,Kenya.Consequently,all aspects of Palliative Care should be given to more than 2/3 population that suffer from cancers and chronic illnesses which sometimes overflow to some acute conditions.While Palliative Care focuses on Holistic Care encompassing physical,psychological,social,and spiritual aspects to adults and children,Primary Health Care operates on the principles of equity,solidarity,universal access to services,multisectoral action,social justice,centralization,and community participation.Thus,there are similarities in Palliative Care and Primary Health Care putting into consideration that the latter is based on practical,scientifically sound and socially accepted methods and technology.It is affordable,universally accessible to individuals and families in the community.Universal Health Coverage ensures that all people and communities have access to promotive,preventive,curative,rehabilitative,and palliative health services they need,of sufficient quality to be effective while also ensuring that the use of these services does not expose the users to financial hardships.The 60%of the Nakuru County population are in need of Palliative Care services,but only about 20%access these services.They suffer from cancers,non-communicable diseases,dementia,and frailty.Geographical challenges,staff shortages,and lack of Palliative Care knowledge are the main barriers to provision of care.

Universal coverage for oral health care in 27 low-income countries:a scoping review

Background Low-income countries bear a growing and disproportionate burden of oral diseases.With the World Health Organization targeting universal oral health coverage by 2030,assessing the state of oral health coverage in these resource-limited nations becomes crucial.This research seeks to examine the political and resource commit-ments to oral health,along with the utilization rate of oral health services,across 27 low-income countries.Methods We investigated five aspects of oral health coverage in low-income countries,including the integration of oral health in national health policies,covered oral health services,utilization rates,expenditures,and the number of oral health professionals.A comprehensive search was conducted across seven bibliographic databases,three grey literature databases,and national governments’and international organizations’websites up to May 2023,with no lin-guistic restrictions.Countries were categorized into“full integration”,“partial integration”,or“no integration”based on the presence of dedicated oral health policies and the frequency of oral health mentions.Covered oral health ser-vices,utilization rates,expenditure trends,and the density of oral health professionals were analyzed using evidence from reviews and data from World Health Organization databases.Results A total of 4242 peer-reviewed and 3345 grey literature texts were screened,yielding 12 and 84 files respec-tively to be included in the final review.Nine countries belong to“full integration”and thirteen countries belong to“partial integration”,while five countries belong to“no integration”.Twelve countries collectively covered 26 types of oral health care services,with tooth extraction being the most prevalent service.Preventive and public health-based oral health interventions were scarce.Utilization rates remained low,with the primary motivation for seeking care being dental pain relief.Expenditures on oral health were minimal,predominantly relying on domestic private sources.On average,the 27 low-income countries had 0.51 dentists per 10,000 population,contrasting with 2.83 and 7.62 in middle-income and high-income countries.Conclusions Oral health care received little political and resource commitment toward achieving universal health coverage in low-income countries.Urgent action is needed to mobilize financial and human resources,and integrate preventive and public health-based interventions.

Impact of macro-fiscal determinants on health financing:empirical evidence from low-and middle-income countries

Background:Health financing is a major challenge in low-and middle-income counties(LMICs)for achieving Universal Health Coverage(UHC).Past studies have argued that the budgetary allocation on health financing depends on macrofiscal policies of an economy such as sustained economic growth and higher revenue mobilization.While the global financial crisis of late 2008 observed a shortage of financial resources in richer countries and adversely affected the health sector.Therefore,this study has examined the impact of macro-fiscal policies on health financing by adopting socioeconomic factors in 85 LMICs for the period 2000 to 2013.Methods:The study has employed the panel System Generalized Method of Moment model that captures the endogeneity problem in the regression estimation by adopting appropriate instrumental variables.Results:The elasticity of public health expenditure(PHE)with respect to macro-fiscal factors varies across LMICs.Tax revenue shows a positive and statistically significant relationship with PHE in full sample,pre-global financial crisis,middle-income,and coefficient value varies from 0.040 to 0.141%.Fiscal deficit and debt services payment shows a negative effect on PHE in full sample,as well as sub-samples and coefficient value,varies from 0.001 to 0.032%.Aging and per capita income show an expected positive relationship with PHE in LIMI countries.Conclusions:Favorable macro-fiscal policies would necessarily raise finance for the health sector development but the prioritization of health budget allocation during the crisis period depends on the nature of tax revenue mobilization and demand for health services.Therefore,the generation of health-specific revenues and effective usage of health budget would probably accelerate the progress towards the achievement of UHC.

Primary health care in China:A decade of development after the 2009 health care reform

Over 40 years ago,primary health care(PHC)was defined in the Alma-Ata Declaration as a critical component of the health care system to address the basic health demand of the people.In China,the Government attaches great importance to health care at the primary level.After the launch of the historical Reform of the Medical and Health Care System in 2009,the PHC system in China has witnessed major progress and breakthroughs,especially in its steadily increased capacity,continuously improved accessibility,and betterment in equality.In this review,we summarized published literatures and official policies,synthesized data from the electronic registration information system of the National Health Commission,national statistical reports,and yearbooks in health care.The review is intended to describe the systematic development of PHC in China in the last decade.The main results include:the solid national policy foundation,increasing number of PHC institutions and workforce,better training of PHC professionals,major achievements in primary health indicators,government financial support to PHC institutions,improved PHC budgeting and insurance coverage,and the advancement of supporting technologies.Challenges and prospects are also discussed.

Understanding surgical care delivery in Sub-Saharan Africa:a cross-sectional analysis of surgical volume,operations,and financing at a tertiary referral hospital in rural Tanzania

Background:Access to surgical care in Low-and Middle-Income Countries(LMICs)such as Tanzania is extremely limited.Northern Tanzania is served by a single tertiary referral hospital,Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre(KCMC).The surgical volumes,workflow,and payment mechanisms in this region have not been characterized.Understanding these factors is critical in expanding access to healthcare.The authors sought to evaluate the operations and financing of the main operating theaters at KCMC in Sub-Saharan Africa.Methods:The 2018 case volume and specialty distribution(general,orthopaedic,and gynecology)in the main operating theaters at KCMC was retrieved through retrospective review of operating report books.Detailed workflow(i.e.planned and cancelled cases,lengths of procedures,lengths of operating days)and financing data(patient payment methods)from the five KCMC operating theater logs were retrospectively reviewed for the available fivemonth period of March 2018 to July 2018.Descriptive statistics and statistical analysis were performed.Results:In 2018,the main operating theaters at KCMC performed 3817 total procedures,with elective procedures(2385)outnumbering emergency procedures(1432).General surgery(1927)was the most operated specialty,followed by orthopaedics(1371)and gynecology(519).In the five-month subset analysis period,just 54.6%of planned operating days were fully completed.There were 238 cancellations(20.8%of planned operations).Time constraints(31.1%,74 cases)was the largest reason;lack of patient payment accounted for as many cancellations as unavailable equipment(6.3%,15 cases each).Financing for elective theater cases included insurance 45.5%(418 patients),and cash 48.4%(445 patients).Conclusion:While surgical volume is high,there are non-physical inefficiencies in the system that can be addressed to reduce cancellations and improve capacity.Improving physical resources is not enough to improve access to care in this region,and likely in many LMIC settings.Patient financing and workflow will be critical considerations to truly improve access to surgical care.

Social innovation for health: engaging communities to address infectious diseases

Universal health coverage emphasises the value of the community-based delivery of health services to ensure that underserved populations have access to care.In areas where infectious diseases are endemic,there are often few resources and limited capacity,and the introduction of effective and accessible strategies require innovation.In this special issue,the contributing authors emphasise the power of local responses to the circumstances that underpin diseases of poverty,and highlight the methodological and programme innovations necessary to support and sustain these responses.Through case studies,the authors illustrate how social innovations can address health inequities,and they identify the role of academics in the Social Innovation in Health Initiative to support this approach.

The gender gap in outpatient care for non-communicable diseases in Mexico between 2006 and 2022

Background Equitable health service utilization is key to health systems’optimal performance and universal health coverage.The evidence shows that men and women use health services differently.However,current analyses have failed to explore these differences in depth and investigate how such gender disparities vary by service type.This study examined the gender gap in the use of outpatient health services by Mexican adults with non-communicable diseases(NCDs)from 2006 to 2022.Methods A cross-sectional population-based analysis of data drawn from National Health and Nutrition Surveys of 2006,2011–12,2020,2021,and 2022 was performed.Information was gathered from 300,878 Mexican adults aged 20 years and older who either had some form of public health insurance or were uninsured.We assessed the use of outpatient health services provided by qualified personnel for adults who reported having experienced an NCD and seeking outpatient care in the 2 weeks before the survey.Outpatient service utilization was disaggregated into four categories:non-use,use of public health services from providers not corresponding to the user’s health insurance,use of public health services from providers not corresponding to the user’s health insurance,and use of private services.This study reported the mean percentages(with 95%confidence intervals[95%CIs])for each sociodemographic covariate associated with service utilization,disaggregated by gender.The percentages were reported for each survey year,the entire study period,the types of service use,and the reasons for non-use,according to the type of health problem.The gender gap in health service utilization was calculated using predictive margins by gender,type of disease,and survey year,and adjusted through a multinomial logistic regression model.Results Overall,we found that women were less likely to fall within the“non-use”category than men dur-ing the entire study period(21.8%vs.27.8%,P<0.001).However,when taking into account the estimated gender gap measured by incremental probability and comparing health needs caused by NCDs against other conditions,com-pared with women,men had a 7.4%lower incremental likelihood of falling within the non-use category(P<0.001),were 10.8%more likely to use services from providers corresponding to their health insurance(P<0.001),and showed a 12%lower incremental probability of using private services(P<0.001).Except for the gap in private service utiliza-tion,which tended to shrink,the others remained stable throughout the period analyzed.Conclusion Over 16 years of outpatient service utilization by Mexican adults requiring care for NCDs has been char-acterized by the existence of gender inequalities.Women are more likely either not to receive care or resort to using private outpatient services,often resulting in catastrophic out-of-pocket expenses for them and their families.Such inequalities are exacerbated by the segmented structure of the Mexican health system,which provides health insur-ance conditional on formal employment participation.These findings should be considered as a key factor in reorient-ing NCD health policies and programs from a gender perspective.

Malaria: Global progress 2000-2015 and future challenges

Background:2015 was the target year for malaria goals set by the World Health Assembly and other international institutions to reduce malaria incidence and mortality.A review of progress indicates that malaria programme financing and coverage have been transformed since the beginning of the millennium,and have contributed to substantial reductions in the burden of disease.Findings:Investments in malaria programmes increased by more than 2.5 times between 2005 and 2014 from US$960 million to US$2.5 billion,allowing an expansion in malaria prevention,diagnostic testing and treatment programmes.In 2015 more than half of the population of sub-Saharan Africa slept under insecticide-treated mosquito nets,compared to just 2%in 2000.Increased availability of rapid diagnostic tests and antimalarial medicines has allowed many more people to access timely and appropriate treatment.Malaria incidence rates have decreased by 37%globally and mortality rates by 60%since 2000.It is estimated that 70%of the reductions in numbers of cases in sub-Saharan Africa can be attributed to malaria interventions.Conclusions:Reductions in malaria incidence and mortality rates have been made in every WHO region and almost every country.However,decreases in malaria case incidence and mortality rates were slowest in countries that had the largest numbers of malaria cases and deaths in 2000;reductions in incidence need to be greatly accelerated in these countries to achieve future malaria targets.Progress is made challenging because malaria is concentrated in countries and areas with the least resourced health systems and the least ability to pay for system improvements.Malaria interventions are nevertheless highly cost-effective and have not only led to significant reductions in the incidence of the disease but are estimated to have saved about US$900 million in malaria case management costs to public providers in sub-Saharan Africa between 2000 and 2014.Investments in malaria programmes can not only reduce malaria morbidity and mortality,thereby contributing to the health targets of the Sustainable Development Goals,but they can also transform the well-being and livelihood of some of the poorest communities across the globe.

Multi-source financing for tuberculosis treatment in China: key issues and challenges

Background:The End Tuberculosis(TB)Strategy of the World Health Organization highlights the need for patientcentered care and social protection measures that alleviate the financial hardships faced by many TB patients.In China,TB treatments are paid for by earmarked government funds,social health insurance,medical assistance for the poor,and out-of-pocket payments from patients.As part of Phase III of the China-Gates TB project,this paper introduces multi-source financing ofTB treatment in the three provinces of China and analyzes the challenges of moving towards universal coverage and its implications of multi-sectoral engagement for TB care.Main text:The new financing policies forTB treatment in the three provinces include increased reimbursement forTB outpatient care,linkage ofTB treatment with local poverty alleviation programs,and use of local government funds to cover some costs to reduce out-of-pocket expenses.However,there are several challenges in reducing the financial burdens faced byTB patients.First,medical costs must be contained by reducing the profit-maximizing behaviors of hospitals.Second,treatment forTB and multi-drug resistant TB(MDR-TB)is only available at county hospitals and city or provincial hospitals,respectively,and these hospitals have low reimbursement rates and high co-payments.Third,many patients with TB and MDR-TB are at the edge of poverty,and therefore ineligible for medical assistance,which targets extremely poor individuals.In addition,the local governments of less developed provinces often face fiscal difficulties,making it challenging to use of local government funds to provide financial support for TB patients.We suggest that stakeholders at multiple sectors should engage in transparent and responsive communications,coordinate policy developments,and integrate resources to improve the integration of social protection schemes.Conclusions:The Chinese government is examining the establishment of multi-source financing forTB treatment by mobilization of funds from the government and social protection schemes.These efforts require strengthening the cooperation of multiple sectors and improving the accountability of different government agencies.All key stakeholders must take concrete actions in the near future to assure significant progress toward the goal of alleviating the financial burden faced byTB and MDR-TB patients.