Estimation of ground heat flux and its impact on the surface energy budget for a semi-arid grassland

Three approaches, i.e., the harmonic analysis （HA） technique, the thermal diffusion equation and correction （TDEC） method, and the calorimetric method used to estimate ground heat flux, are evaluated by using observations from the Semi-Arid Climate and Environment Observatory of Lanzhou University （SACOL） in July, 2008. The calorimetric method, which involves soil heat flux measurement with an HFP01SC self-calibrating heat flux plate buried at a depth of 5 cm and heat storage in the soil between the plate and the surface, is here called the ITHP approach. The results show good linear relationships between the soil heat fluxes measured with the HFP01SC heat flux plate and those calculated with the HA technique and the TDEC method, respectively, at a depth of 5 cm. The soil heat fluxes calculated with the latter two methods well follow the phase measured with the HFP01SC heat flux plate. The magnitudes of the soil heat flux calculated with the HA technique and the TDEC method are close to each other, and they are about 2 percent and 6 percent larger than the measured soil heat flux, respectively, which mainly occur during the nighttime. Moreover, the ground heat fluxes calculated with the TDEC method and the HA technique are highly correlated with each other （R2= 0.97）, and their difference is only about 1 percent. The TDEC-calculated ground heat flux also has a good linear relationship with the ITttP-calculated ground heat flux （R2 = 0.99）, but their difference is larger （about 9 percent）. Furthermore, compared to the HFP01SC direct measurements at a depth of 5 cm, the ground heat flux calculated with the HA technique, the TDEC method, and the ITHP approach can improve the surface energy budget closure by about 6 percent, 7 percent, and 6 percent at SACOL site, respectively. Therefore, the contribution of ground heat flux to the surface energy budget is very important for the semi-arid grassland over the Loess Plateau in China. Using turbulent heat fluxes with common corrections, soil heat storage between the surface and the heat flux plate can improve the surface energy budget closure by about 6 to 7 percent, resulting in a closure of 82 to 83 percent at the SACOL site.

Seasonal evolution of the dominant modes of the Eurasian snowpack and atmospheric circulation from autumn to the subsequent spring and the associated surface heat budget

This study investigates the seasonal evolution of the dominant modes of the Eurasian snowpack and atmospheric circulation from autumn to the subsequent spring using snow water equivalent （SWE）, snow cover frequency （SCF）, and 500 hPa geopotential height data. It is found that the Eurasian SWE/SCF and circulation dominant modes are stably coupled from autumn to the subsequent spring.The temporal coherence of the seasonal evolution of the dominant modes is examined.The seasonal evolution of the Eurasian circulation and SWE dominant modes exhibit good coherence, whereas the evolution of the Eurasian SCF dominant mode is incoherent during the autumn-winter transition season. This incoherence is associated with a sign-change in the SCF anomalies in Europe during the autumn-winter transition season, which is related to the wind anomalies over Europe. In addition, the surface heat budget associated with the Eurasian SWE/SCF and circulation dominant modes is analyzed. The sensible heat flux （SHF） related to the wind-induced thermal advection dominates the surface heat budget from autumn to the subsequent spring, with the largest effect during winter. The surface net shortwave radiation is mainly modulated by snow cover rather than cloud cover, which is estimated to be as important as, or likely superior to, the SHF for the surface heat budget during spring.The NCEP-NCAR surface heat flux reanalysis data demonstrate a consistency with the SWE/SCF and air temperature observational data, indicating a good capability for snow-atmosphere interaction analysis.

Notes On the features of the SST annual cycle and surface heat budget in the South China Sea

ＮｏｔｅｓＯｎｔｈｅｆｅａｔｕｒｅｓｏｆｔｈｅＳＳＴａｎｎｕａｌｃｙｃｌｅａｎｄｓｕｒｆａｃｅｈｅａｔｂｕｄｇｅｔｉｎｔｈｅＳｏｕｔｈＣｈｉｎａＳｅａＩＮＴＲＯＤＵＣＴＩＯＮＴｈｅａｎｎｕａｌｃｙｃｌｅｉｎｔｈｅｏｃｅａｎａｎｄａｔｍｏｓｐｈｅｒｅｓ...

Winter heat budget in the Huanghai Sea and the effect from Huanghai Warm Current (Yellow Sea Warm Current)

Four sources of surface heat flux （SHF） and the satellite remote sensing sea surface temperature （SST） data are combined to investigate the heat budget closure of the Huanghai Sea （HS） in winter.It is found that heat loss occurs all over the HS during winter and the area averaged heat content change decreases with a rate of-106 W/m 2.Comparing with the area averaged SHF of-150 W/m 2 from the four SHF data sets,it can be concluded that the SHF plays a dominant role in the HS heat budget during winter.In contrast,the heat advection transported by the Huanghai Warm Current （Yellow Sea Warm Current,HWC） accounted for up to 29% of the HS heat content change.Close correlation,especially in February,between the storm events and the SST increase demonstrates that the HWC behaves strongly as a wind-driven compensation current.

Evolution of Surface Sensible Heat over the Tibetan Plateau Under the Recent Global Warming Hiatus

Based on regular surface meteorological observations and NCEP/DOE reanalysis data, this study investigates the evolution of surface sensible heat（SH） over the central and eastern Tibetan Plateau（CE-TP） under the recent global warming hiatus. The results reveal that the SH over the CE-TP presents a recovery since the slowdown of the global warming. The restored surface wind speed together with increased difference in ground-air temperature contribute to the recovery in SH.During the global warming hiatus, the persistent weakening wind speed is alleviated due to the variation of the meridional temperature gradient. Meanwhile, the ground surface temperature and the difference in ground-air temperature show a significant increasing trend in that period caused by the increased total cloud amount, especially at night. At nighttime, the increased total cloud cover reduces the surface effective radiation via a strengthening of atmospheric counter radiation and subsequently brings about a clear upward trend in ground surface temperature and the difference in ground-air temperature.Cloud–radiation feedback plays a significant role in the evolution of the surface temperature and even SH during the global warming hiatus. Consequently, besides the surface wind speed, the difference in ground-air temperature becomes another significant factor for the variation in SH since the slowdown of global warming, particularly at night.

SEASONAL HEAT BUDGET IN THE TROPICAL WESTERN PACIFIC OCEAN IN A GLOBAL GCM Ⅱ. IN FIVE SUBREGIONS

The general features of the seasonal suuface heat budget in the tropical western Pacific Ocean,20°S-20°N, western boundary-160°E, were documented by Qu (1995) using a high-resolution generalcirculation model (GCM, Semtner & Chervin,1992) ard existing observations.Close inspection of thesmaller areas, with the whole region further partitioned into six parts, showed different mechanisms balancethe seasonal surface heat budget in different parts of the region The results of study on five subregionsare detailed in this article. In the equatorial (3°S - 3°N) aed North Equatorial Countercurrent(3°N-9°N) region, the surface the flux the does not change significantly throughout the year, so the surface heat content is determined largely by vertical motion near the equator and roughly helf due to horizontal and halfdue to vertical circulation in the region of the North Equatorial Countercurrent(NECC). In the othersubregions (9°N-20°N, 20°S -11°S aed 11°S -3°S ), however, in addition to ocean

SEASONAL HEAT BUDGET IN THE TROPICAL WESTERN PACIFIC OCEAN IN A GLOBAL GCM I. GENERAL DESCRIPTION*

This paper describes the large scale aspects of the seasonal surface heat budget and discusses its main forcing mechanisms in the tropical Western Pacific Ocean. The high - resolution general circulation model (Semtner & Chervin, 1992) used in this study reproduced well the observed upper-layer thermal structure and circulation. It is shown that at least on the average of the study region (20 °N -20°N, west boundary-160 °E) the semiannual variation is a dominant signal for all heat budget components and is presumably due to the sun's passing across the equator twice a year; but that the components have substantial differences in amplitude. The local Ekman divergence in the region does not change significantly through the year. As a result, the change in surface heat content is roughly half due to ocean ?atmosphere heat exchange and half due to heat advection by remotely forced verti-cal motion. Horizontal currents do not play a significant role directly by advection, because the wat-er which enters the region is not very much different in temperature from the water which leaves it.

Effects of the seasonal variation in chlorophyll concentration on sea surface temperature in the global ocean

The effects of biological heating on the upper-ocean temperature of the global ocean are investigated using two ocean-only experiments forced by prescribed atmospheric fields during 1990–2007,on with fixed constant chlorophyll concentration,and the other with seasonally varying chlorophyll concentration.Although the existence of high chlorophyll concentrations can trap solar radiation in the upper layer and warm the surface,cooling sea surface temperature(SST)can be seen in some regions and seasons.Seventeen regions are selected and classified according to their dynamic processes,and the cooling mechanisms are investigated through heat budget analysis.The chlorophyll-induced SST variation is dependent on the variation in chlorophyll concentration and net surface heat flux and on such dynamic ocean processes as mixing,upwelling and advection.The mixed layer depth is also an important factor determining the effect.The chlorophyll-induced SST warming appears in most regions during the local spring to autumn when the mixed layer is shallow,e.g.,low latitudes without upwelling and the mid-latitudes.Chlorophyll-induced SST cooling appears in regions experiencing strong upwelling,e.g.,the western Arabian Sea,west coast of North Africa,South Africa and South America,the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean,and strong mixing(with deep mixed layer depth),e.g.,the mid-latitudes in winter.

A shift in the upper-ocean temperature trends in the South China Sea since the late 1990s

In this paper, the interdecadal variability of upper-ocean temperature in the South China Sea（SCS） is investigated based on several objectively analyzed data sets and two reanalysis data sets. The trends of the SCS sea surface temperature（SST） have changed from warming to cooling since the late 1990 s. A heat budget analysis suggests that the warming of the surface mixed layer during 1984-1999 is primarily attributed to the horizontal heat advection and the decrease of upward long wave radiation, with the net surface heat flux playing a damping role due to the increase of upward latent and sensible heat fluxes. On the other hand, the cooling of the surface mixed layer during 2000-2009 is broadly controlled by net surface heat flux, with the radiation flux playing the dominant role. A possible mechanism is explored that the variation of a sea level pressure（SLP） over the North Pacific Ocean may change the prevailing winds over the SCS, which contributes to the change of the SST in the SCS through the horizontal heat advection and heat fluxes.

Prediction and parametric analysis of 3D borehole and total internal thermal resistance of single U-tube borehole heat exchanger for ground source heat pumps

The borehole and total internal thermal resistance are both significant parameters in evaluating the thermal performance of the ground source heat pump.This study aimed to obtain the accurate correlation of the 3D borehole and total internal thermal resistance(R_(b,3D)and R_(a,3D))and analyze the impacts of parameters on the R_(b,3D)and R_(a,3D).Firstly,eight parameters affecting the R_(b,3D)and R_(a,3D),including the borehole diameter,pipe diameter,pipe-pipe distance,borehole depth,soil thermal conductivity,grout thermal conductivity,pipe thermal conductivity,and fluid velocity inside the pipe,were considered and an L-54 design matrix was generated.Then,the 3D numerical model,coupling with the four-resistance model,was proposed to calculate R_(b,3D)and R_(a,3D)for each case.After that,the response surface methodology was employed to obtain and verify the correlation of R_(b,3D)and R_(a,3D),which were compared with the existing resistance calculation methods.Lastly,analysis of variance was carried out to reveal parameters that have statistically significant impacts on the R_(b,3D)and R_(a,3D).Results show that the rationality and accuracy of the correlation of R_(b,3D)and R_(a,3D)can be verified by the determination coefficient and P value of regression model,as well as the P value of lack-of-fit.The existing resistance calculation methods are more or less inaccurate and the discrepancies in some cases can be up to 86.74%and 111.35%for the borehole and total internal thermal resistance.The pipe and grout thermal conductivity,pipe and borehole diameter,and the pipe-pipe distance can be seen as the significant contributory factors to the variation of R_(b,3D)and R_(a,3D).

高温不稳定多年冻土区保温护道路基热状况监测分析

基于高温不稳定多年冻土区保温护道路段地温监测数据,分析了天然场地及左右路肩下地温、年平均地层温度、热收支及多年冻土上限变化等,探讨了气候变暖及阴阳坡效应下路基不同位置不同深度热状态变化特性及其与天然场地的差异。结果表明:左右路肩阴阳坡效应显著,左路肩下多年冻土最大融化深度为右路肩的2倍,最大融化深度降低速率为右路肩的5倍,且左路肩下多年冻土上限下降速率为右路肩的1.5倍;右路肩处在阴坡且保温护道可能对其多年冻土维持稳定起到了一定积极作用,抬升了其人为冻土上限并减缓了上限下降速率。不同位置年平均地层温度均呈上升趋势,且增长速率随深度逐渐降低,然而左路肩的路基与天然场地交界面附近温度增长速率大于2.5 m深度处,表明此特殊位置土层在多因素作用下可能受到更强的热扰动影响。一般情况下,冻土吸热放热量均随深度降低逐渐减少,但多年冻土上限处在0℃等温线的特殊位置,可能出现吸热量突然增大的现象;多年冻土上限处由于深度较深,热收支增长速率已不受阴阳坡效应影响,该断面左路肩多年冻土上限处年平均热收支为右路肩的2.92倍,但其热收支增长速率几乎相等。

北京奥林匹克公园中心区广场下垫面热环境特征及材质优化研究

【目的】城市中大面积且连续的硬质下垫面是近地表热环境恶化的重要原因之一,下垫面反照率的增加通常能使地表环境变得凉爽。通过研究下垫面热环境特征与环境温度的关系,可以为缓解城市地表升温提供理论依据。【方法】以北京奥林匹克公园中心区广场为例,实测6种典型下垫面(沥青、透水混凝土、砖、花岗岩、砾石、草地)的地表温度,对下垫面热环境特征及温度区间进行相关性研究,并结合ENVI-met数值模拟法探究整体反照率对热环境的具体影响。【结果】硬质下垫面在四季均能加热空气,在相同环境条件下,所有参与研究的硬质下垫面中沥青最热,花岗岩最凉爽;在不同下垫面类型中,颜色深浅对表面温度的影响高于材料类型与表面粗糙程度差异的影响;在单日内不同的测试时间段,日温度均值较低的深色下垫面在某一时刻的瞬时温度可能会高于日温度均值较高的浅色下垫面;在一定区间内增加场地整体反照率可有效降温,场地温度降幅随反照率上升呈先升后降的单峰趋势,且研究区域内整体反照率约为0.56时热环境改善效益最佳。【结论】提出硬质下垫面材料选择及设置建议,为北京公共空间硬质下垫面设计提供参考和依据。

2020—2022年与2010—2012年两个“二次变冷”La Nina事件的特征与机制对比

厄尔尼诺-南方涛动(EI Nino-Southern Oscillation, ENSO)是由热带太平洋海-气相互作用产生的显著年际变率,其负位相的拉尼娜(La Nina)事件对中国极端天气有巨大影响。本文利用海洋、大气观测、再分析资料集,对比研究了2010—2012年和2020—2022年两个“二次变冷”La Nina事件演变过程中各阶段的物理过程和机制。结果表明,2010—2012年La Nina事件第一个峰值强于2020—2022年La Nina事件,但第二个峰值较后者弱,且其海表温度异常(Sea surface temperature anomaly, SSTA)偏西,该SSTA的强度和位置特征可从次表层海温异常得到进一步验证。另外,赤道太平洋的东风异常也在2010年夏秋季明显比2020年偏强、偏西;而偏东且增强的东风异常使2020—2022年La Nina事件的第二个冬季峰值强于2010—2012事件。通过海洋混合层热收支诊断分析,纬向平流反馈(海表面热通量异常)是引起La Nina事件发展(衰减)的主要因素。在发展阶段,东风异常引起的纬向海流异常将冷水向西输运,成为赤道中-东太平洋冷SSTA发展的主导因子,垂直方向温跃层反馈过程的贡献也不可忽略。本研究以近十年来的两个“二次变冷”La Nina事件为例进行定性和定量的对比分析,明晰了二者生命演变史过程中的物理机制,为探究La Nina事件生消机理和ENSO不对称性在全球变暖下的可能变化提供了一定的参考。

青海湖流域不同下垫面类型对地表温度的生物物理影响

本研究选取青海湖流域亚高山灌丛和温性草原两个不同土地覆盖类型的站点,利用湍流通量数据和自动气象站数据对比生长季和非生长季两个站点的微气象要素和地表能量平衡收支,评估土地利用/土地覆盖变化(Land Use/Land Cover Changes,LULCC)对地表温度的生物物理影响。亚高山灌丛相比温性草原具有更低的地表温度、气温和土壤温度,在生长季两个站点的地表温度、气温和土壤温度的差异更为明显,而非生长季相对湿度的差异更为明显。根据直接分解温度理论(Direct Decomposed Temperature Metric,DTM),分析不同下垫面对地表温度的生物物理影响。结果表明:白天灌丛相比草原的冷却作用主要贡献因素是短波辐射、地表土壤热通量和感热通量项,其中短波辐射在灌丛的冷却中起到正反馈作用,而后两者起到负反馈作用。夜间灌丛的冷却作用主要贡献因素是地表土壤热通量项。在相同气候和天气背景下,不同下垫面确实会对地表温度有明显的生物物理反馈作用。

On the turbulent heat fluxes:A comparison among satellite-based estimates,atmospheric reanalyses,and in-situ observations during the winter climate over Arctic sea ice

The surface energy budget is crucial for Arctic sea ice mass balance calculation and climate systems,among which turbulent heat fluxes significantly affect the airesea exchanges of heat and moisture in the atmospheric boundary layer.Satellite observations(e.g.CERES and APPX)and atmospheric reanalyses(e.g.,ERA5)are often used to represent components of the energy budget at regional and pan-Arctic scales.However,the uncertainties of the satellite-based turbulent heat fluxes are largely unknown,and cross-comparisons with reanalysis data and insitu observations are limited.In this study,satellite-based turbulent heat fluxes were assessed against in-situ observations from the N-ICE2015 drifting ice station(north of Svalbard,JanuaryeJune 2015)and ERA5 reanalysis.The turbulent heat fluxes were calculated by two approaches using the satellite-based ice surface temperature and radiative fluxes,surface atmospheric parameters from ERA5,and snow/sea ice thickness from the pan-Arctic Ice Ocean Modeling and Assimilation System(PIOMAS).We found that the bulk-aerodynamic formula based results could better capture the variations of turbulent heat fluxes,while the maximum entropy production based estimates are comparable with ERA5 in terms of root-mean-square error(RMSE).CERES-based estimates outperform the APP-X-based ones but ERA5 performs the best in all seasons(RMSE of 18 and 7 W m^(-2)for sensible and latent heat flux,respectively).The aireice temperature/humidity differences and the surface radiation budget were found the primary driving factors in the bulk-formula method and maximum entropy production(MEP)method,respectively.Furthermore,errors in the surface and near-surface temperature and humidity explain almost 50%of the uncertainties in the estimates based on the bulk-formula,whereas errors in the net radiative fluxes explain more than 50%of the uncertainties in the MEP-based results.

基于Landsat数据的绵阳市城市热岛效应研究

随着城市化进程的不断推进,城市热岛也随之不断发展演变。以2004年至2016年的四组Landsat卫星影像数据为基础,使用基于辐射传输方程的方法获取了绵阳市2004年至2016年的四幅地表温度分布图像;采用监督分类法获取了四幅地表分类图像。研究结果表明:从2004年至2016年,绵阳市的城市区域沿着涪江和安昌河两岸不断延伸,城市建成面积扩大了一倍多,农田和林地的面积则分别减少了17.8%和12.1%;城市热岛分布范围不断扩大,强度在不断地增强;适当的增加城市的水体和植被的面积则能够明显削弱城市热岛效应强度。

考虑雨水感热的降雨对多年冻土水热变化影响模型研究

青藏高原暖湿化诱发的多年冻土和寒区工程水热变化是第三极冻土生态与地质演化问题的关注焦点。目前降雨影响下的多年冻土地表能量收支建模未考虑雨水温度的影响,忽略了降雨能量脉冲作用。在已有的冻土水热耦合理论的基础上,通过引入考虑雨水感热的地表能量平衡理论,完善了考虑降雨能量的冻土水热耦合模型,基于青藏高原北麓河现场监测验证了模型的有效性,并分析了夏季降雨对地表能量平衡和活动层水热的影响机制。结果表明:考虑雨水感热的修正模型模拟土壤体积含水率、温度和热通量的平均偏差误差分别在±1.198%、±0.704℃和±1.66 W/m^(2)之内,一致性指数分别大于0.877、0.929和0.937;优化后的模型提升了对地表吸放热状态的评估,能够较好地预测了雨后活动层水热的变化;夏季降雨增加地表蒸发潜热和雨水感热,降低地表净辐射、感热和土壤地表热通量使地面降温,降温效果与降雨强度正相关;同时受降雨时段影响,白天降雨事件的降温效果显著,雨水感热促进地表冷却,而夜间雨水短暂加热地表,蒸发潜热的显著作用使地表依旧持续降温。在地表温度梯度降低和雨水入渗的作用下,温度梯度水汽通量减少,液态水通量增加,在强降雨和连续降雨下出现液态水的向下输送和累积。但相比增加的液态水对流传热,活动层热传导、水汽扩散潜热和水汽对流传热的降低更显著,使土壤总热通量减少而导致土壤降温,延缓活动层温度的升高。

寒冷地区地表水地源热泵系统设计及应用

我国北方寒冷地区冬季地表水温度最低会降到2℃以下,防结冰和取水工况设计是地表水地源热泵系统的关键。本文分析了寒冷地区冬季地表水温度特点,探讨了湖水可取热量的计算方法;研究了热泵系统的连接形式、运行工况和设备配置等问题。以青岛市高新区某大型河水源热泵系统为例,介绍了水源侧的取水工况和工艺设计。系统运行结果表明,优化后的水源热泵系统具有较高的稳定性和可靠性,可以在北方寒冷地区推广和应用。

Upper-Ocean Lateral Heat Transports in the Nino3.4 Region and Their Connection with ENSO

In the Nino3.4 region(tropical Pacific,5°S-5°N,170°-120°W),sea surface temperature(SST)changes are highly correlated with temperature variations in the upper 40-m layer.This study explores the upper-ocean heat budget in the Nino3.4 region using Ocean Reanalysis System 5(ORAS5)monthly data from 1979 to 2018,with a focus on ocean heat transports at lateral boundaries in the top 40-m layer and their correlation with temperature variations.In the region,there is a well-defined structure of opposite meridional circulation in the upper and lower parts of the thermocline,characterized by divergence in the upper layer above 40 m and convergence in the lower layer.The change of mean temperature in the upper layer is determined by the sum of zonal,meridional,and vertical heat transports,which,however,tend to largely compensate for each other.In general,part of the surface heat flux from the atmosphere to the ocean and the heat transport from the subsurface ocean are transported out of the domain by meridional and zonal currents,leaving only a tiny part to warm or cool the upper ocean.The amplitude of the net surface heat flux effective for the entire 40-m layer of the ocean is weaker than the lateral heat transport.On an interannual timescale,variations of heat transports in both zonal and meridional are positively correlated with temperature anomalies,while the vertical heat transport from the subsurface ocean is negatively correlated.Composite analyses for five El Nino events and five La Nina events also revealed that there is a positive contribution of horizontal transport convergence to temperature anomalies during the evolution of El Nino(warming)and La Nina(cooling),while vertical transport acts against temperature variations.

实木复合地板常用面板表面耐开裂研究

以柞木、红栎、美洲白栎、欧洲栎、核桃木等5种常用实木复合地板面板用弦切单板为研究对象,对比研究其2种厚度规格制作的实木复合地板在模拟地采暖时温湿度变化条件下表面耐开裂性能。结果发现,同一树种条件下,面板厚度2.0 mm的地板比面板1.2 mm的地板表面漆膜更容易出现开裂现象;5种木材单板中,柞木单板相对比其他4个树种的单板更稳定。