Overview of the immunological mechanisms in hepatitis B virus reactivation:Implications for disease progression and management strategies

Hepatitis B virus(HBV)reactivation is a clinically significant challenge in disease management.This review explores the immunological mechanisms underlying HBV reactivation,emphasizing disease progression and management.It delves into host immune responses and reactivation’s delicate balance,spanning innate and adaptive immunity.Viral factors’disruption of this balance,as are interac-tions between viral antigens,immune cells,cytokine networks,and immune checkpoint pathways,are examined.Notably,the roles of T cells,natural killer cells,and antigen-presenting cells are discussed,highlighting their influence on disease progression.HBV reactivation’s impact on disease severity,hepatic flares,liver fibrosis progression,and hepatocellular carcinoma is detailed.Management strategies,including anti-viral and immunomodulatory approaches,are critically analyzed.The role of prophylactic anti-viral therapy during immunosuppressive treatments is explored alongside novel immunotherapeutic interventions to restore immune control and prevent reactivation.In conclusion,this compre-hensive review furnishes a holistic view of the immunological mechanisms that propel HBV reactivation.With a dedicated focus on understanding its implic-ations for disease progression and the prospects of efficient management stra-tegies,this article contributes significantly to the knowledge base.The more profound insights into the intricate interactions between viral elements and the immune system will inform evidence-based approaches,ultimately enhancing disease management and elevating patient outcomes.The dynamic landscape of management strategies is critically scrutinized,spanning anti-viral and immunomodulatory approaches.The role of prophylactic anti-viral therapy in preventing reactivation during immunosuppressive treatments and the potential of innovative immunotherapeutic interventions to restore immune control and proactively deter reactivation.

Reactivation of hepatitis B virus infection – an important aspect of multifaceted problem

In this editorial we comment on the article published in the recent issue of the W orld Journal of Gastroenterology.We focus specifically on the problem of occult hepatitis B virus(HBV)infection,that is a result of previous hepatitis B(PHB)and a source for reactivation of HBV.The prevalence of PHB is underestimated due to the lack of population testing programs.However,this condition not only com-plicate anticancer treatment,but may be responsible for the development of other diseases,like cancer or autoimmune disorders.Here we unveil possible mecha-nisms responsible for realization of these processes and suggest practical approa-ches for diagnosis and treatment.

Risk of hepatitis B virus reactivation in cancer patients undergoing treatment with tyrosine kinase-inhibitors

This editorial commented on an article in the World Journal of Gastroenterology titled“Risks of Reactivation of Hepatitis B Virus in Oncological Patients Using Tyrosine Kinase-Inhibitors:Case Report and Literature Analysis”by Colapietro et al.In this editorial,we focused on providing a more comprehensive exploration of hepatitis B virus reactivation(HBVr)associated with the usage of tyrosine kinase inhibitors(TKIs).It includes insights into the mechanisms underlying HBV reactivation,the temporal relationship between TKIs and HBV reactivation,and preventive measures.The aim is to understand the need for nucleos(t)ide analogs(NAT)and serial blood tests for early recognition of reactivation and acute liver injury,along with management strategies.TKIs are considered to be an intermediate(1%-10%)of HBVr.Current guidelines stipulate that patients receiving therapy with high or moderate risks of reactivation or recent cancer diagnosis must have at least tested hepatitis B surface antigen,anti-hepatitis B core antigen(HBc),and anti-hepatitis B surface antibody.Anti-HBc screening in highly endemic areas means people with negative tests should be vaccinated against HBV.Nucleoside or nucleotide analogs(NAs)like entecavir(ETV),tenofovir disoproxil fumarate(TDF),and tenofovir alafenamide(TAF)form the basis of HBV reactivation prophylaxis and treatment during immunosuppression.Conversely,lamivudine,telbivudine,and adefovir are generally discouraged due to their reduced antiviral efficacy and higher risk of fostering drug-resistant viral strains.However,these less effective NAs may still be utilized in cases where ETV,TDF,and TAF are not feasible treatment options.

Risk of hepatic decompensation from hepatitis B virus reactivation in hematological malignancy treatments

In this editorial,we discussed the apparent discrepancy between the findings described by Colapietro et al,in their case report and data found in the literature.Colapietro et al reported a case of hepatitis B virus(HBV)-related hepatic decompensation in a patient with chronic myeloid leukemia and a previously resolved HBV infection who was receiving Bruton’s tyrosine kinase(BTK)inhibitor therapy.First of all,we recapitulated the main aspects of the immune system involved in the response to HBV infection in order to underline the role of the innate and adaptive response,focusing our attention on the protective role of anti-HBs.We then carefully analyzed literature data on the risk of HBV reactivation(HBVr)in patients with previous HBV infection who were treated with either tyrosine kinase inhibitors or BTK inhibitors for their hematologic malignancies.Based on literature data,we suggested that several factors may contribute to the different risks of HBVr:The type of hematologic malignancy;the type of therapy(BTK inhibitors,especially second-generation,seem to be at a higher risk of HBVr than those with tyrosine kinase inhibitors);previous exposure to an anti-CD20 as first-line therapy;and ethnicity and HBV genotype.Therefore,the warning regarding HBVr in the specific setting of patients with hematologic malignancies requires further investigation.

Alterations in the gut microbiome after transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt in patients with hepatitis B virus-related portal hypertension

BACKGROUND Gut microbiota(GM)affects the progression and response to treatment in liver diseases.The GM composition is diverse and associated with different etiologies of liver diseases.Notably,alterations in GM alterations are observed in patients with portal hypertension(PH)secondary to cirrhosis,with hepatitis B virus(HBV)infection being a major cause of cirrhosis in China.Thus,understanding the role of GM alterations in patients with HBV infection-related PH is essential.AIM To evaluate GM alterations in patients with HBV-related PH after transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt(TIPS)placement.METHODS This was a prospective,observational clinical study.There were 30 patients(with a 100%technical success rate)recruited in the present study.Patients with esophagogastric variceal bleeding due to HBV infection-associated PH who underwent TIPS were enrolled.Stool samples were obtained before and one month after TIPS treatment,and GM was analyzed using 16S ribosomal RNA amplicon sequencing.RESULTS One month after TIPS placement,8 patients developed hepatic encephalopathy(HE)and were assigned to the HE group;the other 22 patients were assigned to the non-HE group.There was no substantial disparity in the abundance of GM at the phylum level between the two groups,regardless of TIPS treatment(all,P>0.05).However,following TIPS placement,the following results were observed:(1)The abundance of Haemophilus and Eggerthella increased,whereas that of Anaerostipes,Dialister,Butyricicoccus,and Oscillospira declined in the HE group;(2)The richness of Eggerthella,Streptococcus,and Bilophila increased,whereas that of Roseburia and Ruminococcus decreased in the non-HE group;and(3)Members from the pathogenic genus Morganella appeared in the HE group but not in the non-HE group.CONCLUSION Intestinal microbiota-related synergism may predict the risk of HE following TIPS placement in patients with HBVrelated PH.Prophylactic microbiome therapies may be useful for preventing and treating HE after TIPS placement.

Perioperative remedial antiviral therapy in hepatitis B virus-related hepatocellular carcinoma resection:How to achieve a better outcome

BACKGROUND Although the benefits of antiviral therapy for hepatitis B virus(HBV)-related hepatocellular carcinoma(HCC)have been proven,researchers have not con-firmed the differences in patient outcomes between patients who received preoperative antiviral therapy for a period of time(at least 24 wk)and patients who received remedial antiviral therapy just before radical resection for HBV-related HCC.AIM To investigate the efficacy of perioperative remedial antiviral therapy in patients with HBV-related HCC.METHODS A retrospective study of patients who underwent radical resection for HBV-related HCC at the First Affiliated Hospital of Xi’an Jiaotong University from January 2016 to June 2019 was conducted.Considering the history of antiviral therapy,patients were assigned to remedial antiviral therapy and preoperative antiviral therapy groups.RESULTS Kaplan–Meier analysis revealed significant differences in overall survival(P<0.0001)and disease-free survival(P=0.035)between the two groups.Multivariate analysis demonstrated that a history of preoperative antiviral treatment was independently related to improved survival(hazard ratio=0.27;95%confidence interval:0.08-0.88;P=0.030).CONCLUSION In patients with HBV-related HCC,it is ideal to receive preoperative long-term antiviral therapy,which helps patients tolerate more extensive hepatectomy;however,remedial antiviral therapy,which reduces preoperative HBV-DNA levels to less than 4 Log10 copies DNA/mL,can also result in improved outcomes.

Impact of baseline hepatitis B virus viral load on the long-term prognosis of advanced hepatocellular carcinoma treated with immunotherapy

BACKGROUND Although the combination of lenvatinib and PD-1 inhibitors has become the standard regimen for the treatment of advanced hepatocellular carcinoma(HCC),real data on the impact of baseline hepatitis B virus(HBV)-DNA levels on the clinical efficacy of this regimen is still limited.AIM To evaluate the effectiveness of camrelizumab combined with lenvatinib in patients with HCC at varying levels of HBV-DNA.METHODS One hundred and twenty patients with HCC who received camrelizumab and lenvatinib treatment were categorized into two cohorts:HBV-DNA≤2000(n=66)and HBV-DNA>2000(n=54).The main outcomes measured were overall survival(OS)and progression-free survival(PFS),while additional outcomes included the rate of objective response rate(ORR),disease control rate(DCR),and any negative events.Cox proportional hazards regression analysis revealed independent predictors of OS,leading to the creation of a nomogram incorporating these variables.RESULTS The median PFS was 8.32 months for the HBV-DNA≤2000 group,which was similar to the 7.80 months observed for the HBV DNA>2000 group(P=0.88).Likewise,there was no notable variation in the median OS between the two groups,with durations of 13.30 and 14.20 months respectively(P=0.14).The ORR and DCR were compared between the two groups,showing ORR of 19.70%vs 33.33%(P=0.09)and DCR of 72.73%vs 74.07%(P=0.87).The nomogram emphasized the importance of antiviral treatment as the main predictor of patient results,with portal vein tumor thrombus and Barcelona Clinic Liver Cancer staging following closely behind.CONCLUSION The clinical outcomes of patients with HBV-associated HCC treated with camrelizumab in combination with lenvatinib are not significantly affected by HBV viral load.

Inhibition of hepatitis B virus via selective apoptosis modulation by Chinese patent medicine Liuweiwuling Tablet

BACKGROUND Liuweiwuling Tablet(LWWL)is a Chinese patent medicine approved for the treatment of chronic inflammation caused by hepatitis B virus(HBV)infection.Previous studies have indicated an anti-HBV effect of LWWL,specifically in terms of antigen inhibition,but the underlying mechanism remains unclear.AIM To investigate the potential mechanism of action of LWWL against HBV.METHODS In vitro experiments utilized three HBV-replicating and three non-HBV-replicating cell lines.The in vivo experiment involved a hydrodynamic injectionmediated mouse model with HBV replication.Transcriptomics and metabolomics were used to investigate the underlying mechanisms of action of LWWL.RESULTS In HepG2.1403F cells,LWWL(0.8 mg/mL)exhibited inhibitory effects on HBV DNA,hepatitis B surface antigen and pregenomic RNA(pgRNA)at rates of 51.36%,24.74%and 50.74%,respectively.The inhibition rates of LWWL(0.8mg/mL)on pgRNA/covalently closed circular DNA in HepG2.1403F,HepG2.2.15 and HepG2.A64 cells were 47.78%,39.51%and 46.74%,respectively.Integration of transcriptomics and metabolomics showed that the anti-HBV effect of LWWL was primarily linked to pathways related to apoptosis(PI3K-AKT,CASP8-CASP3 and P53 pathways).Apoptosis flow analysis revealed that the apoptosis rate in the LWWL-treated group was significantly higher than in the control group(CG)among HBV-replicating cell lines,including HepG2.2.15(2.92%±1.01%vs 6.68%±2.04%,P<0.05),HepG2.A64(4.89%±1.28%vs 8.52%±0.50%,P<0.05)and HepG2.1403F(3.76%±1.40%vs 7.57%±1.35%,P<0.05)(CG vs LWWL-treated group).However,there were no significant differences in apoptosis rates between the non-HBV-replicating HepG2 cells(5.04%±0.74%vs 5.51%±1.57%,P>0.05),L02 cells(5.49%±0.80%vs 5.48%±1.01%,P>0.05)and LX2 cells(6.29%±1.54%vs 6.29%±0.88%,P>0.05).TUNEL staining revealed a significantly higher apoptosis rate in the LWWL-treated group than in the CG in the HBVreplicating mouse model,while no noticeable difference in apoptosis rates between the two groups was observed in the non-HBV-replicating mouse model.CONCLUSION Preliminary results suggest that LWWL exerts a potent inhibitory effect on wild-type and drug-resistant HBV,potentially involving selective regulation of apoptosis.These findings offer novel insights into the anti-HBV activities of LWWL and present a novel mechanism for the development of anti-HBV medications.

Hepatitis B virus genotypes in precision medicine of hepatitis Brelated hepatocellular carcinoma:Where we are now

Hepatitis B virus(HBV)infection is a major player in chronic hepatitis B that may lead to the development of hepatocellular carcinoma(HCC).HBV genetics are diverse where it is classified into at least 9 genotypes(A to I)and 1 putative genotype(J),each with specific geographical distribution and possible different clinical outcomes in the patient.This diversity may be associated with the precision medicine for HBV-related HCC and the success of therapeutical approaches against HCC,related to different pathogenicity of the virus and host response.This Editorial discusses recent updates on whether the classification of HBV genetic diversity is still valid in terms of viral oncogenicity to the HCC and its precision medicine,in addition to the recent advances in cellular and molecular biology technologies.

Hepatitis B surface antigen-negative but hepatitis B envelope antigen-positive false occult hepatitis B virus infection:A case report

BACKGROUND Occult hepatitis B infection(OBI)is characterized by the detection of hepatitis B virus(HBV)DNA in serum(usually HBV DNA<200 IU/mL)or the liver but negativity for hepatitis B surface antigen(HBsAg).The diagnosis of OBI relies on the sensitivity of assays used in the detection of HBV DNA and HBsAg.HBsAg assays with inadequate sensitivity or inability to detect HBV S variants may lead to misdiagnosis of OBI in people with overt HBV infection.CASE SUMMARY We report a HBsAg-negative but hepatitis B envelope antigen-positive patient who had a significant HBV DNA level.The patient was initially diagnosed as having OBI.However,sequence analysis revealed a unique insertion of amino acid residues at positions 120-124 in the S protein,which affects the formation of a disulfide bond that is associated with the formation of a loop.It is well known that there is an overlap between the S protein and Pol protein.We found that this new insertion site occurred in polymerase/reverse transcriptase domain,indi-cating that this insertion might be involved in HBV pathogenicity.The patient was finally diagnosed with a false OBI.CONCLUSION An insertion of amino acid residues at positions 120-124 of the S protein affects the formation of immunodominant epitopes and results in negative HBsAg levels.

Navigating the complex terrain of hepatitis B virus reactivation in the era of Bruton tyrosine kinase inhibitors

In this editorial,we offer a summary of the risk associated with hepatitis B reactivation(HBVr)in the setting of both solid and hematologic malignancies treated with Bruton tyrosine kinase(BTK)inhibitors,with insights derived from current studies.Furthermore,we emphasize the critical need for a framework regarding robust risk evaluation in patients undergoing such treatments.This framework is essential for identifying those at increased risk of HBVr,enabling healthcare providers to implement proactive measures to prevent reactivation and ensure the safe administration of BTK inhibitor therapy.

Epidemiological and Paraclinical Aspects of Helicobacter pylori Infection among Hepatitis B Virus Carriers in the Republic of Congo

Objective: Describe the epidemiological and paraclinical aspects of HP infection in hepatitis B virus carriers. Population and Method: This was a descriptive cross-sectional study running from January 1 to August 30, 2019, a period of 8 months. It took place in the Hospital Centers of the two major cities of Congo (Brazzaville and Pointe-Noire). The target population of our study consists of patients carrying HBV under antiviral treatment or not. Patients aged at least 18 years and consenting with a biological and morphological assessment were included. We did not include in our study patients taking or having taken antibiotics and/or PPIs less than 4 weeks ago. We excluded all patients who did not deposit fresh stools and those in whom stool extraction could not be done manually. The variables studied covered sociodemographic, clinical and paraclinical aspects. Data entry was done using Excel 8.0 software. Statistical analysis was carried out with SPSS 20.0 software. Results: During our study, we included 169 patients. The frequency of HPAG in the stools of HBV carriers in our study population was 63.9% (n = 109). Male patients represented 69% (n = 75) and female patients represented 31% (n = 34). The average age of the patients is 43.92 ± 13.51 years with extremes of 18 years and 80 years. Concerning profession, unemployed patients and those working in the private sector were the most represented in respectively 28.4% (n = 31) and 22.9% (n = 25) without statistical link. Households comprising between 4 - 10 people and the use of public latrines were the risk factors most represented in respectively 69% (n = 75) and 88% (n = 96) without statistical link. Clinically, hepatomegaly and signs of portal hypertension were most represented in 53% (n = 58) and 47% (n = 51). Biologically, HBV DNA was detectable in 60.5% of cases (n = 66).

Demyelinating neuropathy in patients with hepatitis B virus: A case report

BACKGROUND Hepatitis B rarely leads to demyelinating neuropathy,despite peripheral neuropathy being the first symptom of hepatitis B infection.CASE SUMMARY A 64-year-old man presented with sensorimotor symptoms in multiple peripheral nerves.Serological testing showed that these symptoms were due to hepatitis B.After undergoing treatment involving intravenous immunoglobulin and an antiviral agent,there was a notable improvement in his symptoms.CONCLUSION Although hepatitis B virus(HBV)infection is known to affect hepatocytes,it is crucial to recognize the range of additional manifestations linked to this infection.The connection between long-term HBV infection and demyelinating neuropathy has seldom been documented;hence,prompt diagnostic and treatment are essential.The patient's positive reaction to immunoglobulin seems to be associated with production of the antigen-antibody immune complex.

Timing of antiviral therapy in patients with hepatitis B virus related hepatocellular carcinoma undergoing hepatectomy

Globally,hepatocellular carcinoma(HCC)is among the most prevalent and deadly cancers.Hepatitis B virus(HBV)infection is an important etiology and disease progression factor for HCC.Hepatectomy is a widely accepted curative treatment for HCC,but the long-term survival rate is still unsatisfactory due to the high recurrence rate after resection.Preoperative or postoperative antiviral therapy plays an important role in improving the prognosis for HBV-related HCC patients who underwent hepatectomy.However,many patients miss out on the chance to receive long-term preoperative antiviral medication because their HBV and HCC infections are discovered concurrently,necessitating the start of remedial antiviral therapy in the perioperative phase.Therefore,it is of great value to know when antiviral therapy is more appropriate and whether perioperative rescue antiviral therapy can achieve the effect of preoperative long-term antiviral therapy.

Review on article of effects of tenofovir alafenamide and entecavir in chronic hepatitis B virus patients

This letter comments on the article which reported that tenofovir alafenamide may increase blood lipid levels compared with entecavir in patients with chronic hepatitis B published on World J Hepatol 2023 August 27.We review the related research content,topic selection,methodology,conclusions,strengths and weaknesses of this article.And evaluate it in relation to other published relevant articles.

Advances in immunotherapy for hepatitis B virus associated hepatocellular carcinoma patients

Hepatitis B virus(HBV)infection plays an important role in the occurrence and development of hepatocellular carcinoma(HCC),and the rate of HBV infection in liver cancer patients in China is as high as 92.05%.Due to long-term exposure to chronic antigens from the gut,the liver needs to maintain a certain level of immune tolerance,both to avoid severe inflammation caused by non-pathogenic antigens and to maintain the possibility of rapid and violent responses to infection and tumors.Therefore,HBV infection interacts with the tumor microenvironment(TME)through a highly complex and intertwined signaling pathway,which results in a special TME in HCC.Due to changes in the TME,tumor cells can evade immune surveillance by inhibiting tumor-specific T cell function through cytotoxic T-lymphocy-associated protein-4(CTLA-4)and programmed cell death 1(PD-1)/programmed cell death ligand 1(PD-L1).Interferons,as a class of immune factors with strong biological activity,can improve the TME of HBV-HCC through various pathways.In recent years,the systematic treatment of HCC has gradually come out of the dilemma.In addition to the continuous emergence of new multi-target anti-vascular tyrosine kinase inhibitor drugs,immune checkpoint inhibitors have opened up a new avenue for the systematic treatment of HCC.At present,immunotherapy based on PD-1/L1 inhibitors has gradually become a new direction of systematic treatment for HCC,and the disease charac-teristics of patients included in global clinical studies are different from those of Chinese patients.Therefore,whether a group of HCC patients with HBV background and poor prognosis in China can also benefit from immunotherapy is an issue of wide concern.This review aims to elucidate the advances of immuno-therapy for HBV related HCC patients with regard to:(1)Immunotherapy based on interferons;(2)Immunotherapy based on PD-1/L1 inhibitors;(3)Immunotherapy based on CTLA4 inhibitors;(4)Adoptive cell transfer;(5)Combination immunotherapy strategy;and(6)Shortcomings of immunotherapy.

Perception of Medical Students towards Hepatitis B Virus Infection and Hepatitis B Vaccination in a Private Tertiary Hospital in Jos North Local Government, Plateau State, Nigeria

Background: Prevention is one of the safe schemes against the high prevalence of viral Hepatitis. Negative perceptions or perceptions about the risks of hepatitis B among medical students and health care workers may influence the behavioral pattern and adoption of preventive measures against the virus and can affect the uptake of the Hepatitis B vaccine. This study assesses the perception of medical students towards Hepatitis B virus infection and Hepatitis B Vaccination in a Private Tertiary Hospital in Jos North Local Government, Plateau State, Nigeria. Methods: This was a descriptive cross-sectional study done in August 2021 among 236 clinical medical students using a multistage sampling technique. Data was collected using an interviewer-administered structured questionnaire and analysed using the IBM SPSS 28 (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences). Ethical approval was granted by Bingham University Teaching Hospital, Ethics Committee, Jos, Plateau State. Results: Two-thirds of respondents were of the opinion that they are at risk of contracting HBV. Half were of the opinion that the risk is very much while a third believed the risk is moderate. Among those who think they are not at risk of contracting HBV, the majority felt so because they are vaccinated while 10.3% believe that they are safe. 43.2% of respondents think that HBV Vaccine is very effective in preventing HBV infection while 39.8% think it is slightly effective, and 7.6% think it is not effective. Almost all respondents, 99.2% are of the opinion that HBV Vaccination is important for students while 0.8% think it is not important. The majority of the respondents at 95.8% were willing to be screened for HBV. The majority (85.6%) of respondents are willing to pay for HBV Vaccine as against 14.4% of respondents who are not willing to pay. Conclusion: Summarily, 21 (8.9%) of the students had a negative perception of Hepatitis B Vaccination, and 215 (91.1%) had a positive perception of Hepatitis B Vaccination. Perception-sustaining events like seminars, workshops, road shows, and campaigns should be organized among students and health workers.

Association of preoperative antiviral treatment with incidences of post-hepatectomy liver failure in hepatitis B virus-related hepatocellular carcinoma

BACKGROUND Post-hepatectomy liver failure(PHLF)is a common consequence of radical partial hepatectomy in hepatocellular carcinoma(HCC).AIMS To investigate the relationship between preoperative antiviral therapy and PHLF,as well as assess the potential efficacy of hepatitis B virus(HBV)DNA level in predicting PHLF.METHODS A retrospective study was performed involving 1301 HCC patients with HBV who underwent radical hepatectomy.Receiver operating characteristic(ROC)analysis was used to assess the capacity of HBV DNA to predict PHLF and establish the optimal cutoff value for subsequent analyses.Logistic regression analyses were performed to assess the independent risk factors of PHLF.The increase in the area under the ROC curve,categorical net reclassification improvement(NRI),and integrated discrimination improvement(IDI)were used to quantify the efficacy of HBV DNA level for predicting PHLF.The P<0.05 was considered statistically significant.RESULTS Logistic regression analyses showed that preoperative antiviral therapy was independently associated with a reduced risk of PHLF(P<0.05).HBV DNA level with an optimal cutoff value of 269 IU/mL(P<0.001)was an independent risk factor of PHLF.All the reference models by adding the variable of HBV DNA level had an improvement in area under the curve,categorical NRI,and IDI,particularly for the fibrosis-4 model,with values of 0.729(95%CI:0.705-0.754),1.382(95%CI:1.341-1.423),and 0.112(95%CI:0.110-0.114),respectively.All the above findings were statistically significant.CONCLUSION In summary,preoperative antiviral treatment can reduce the incidence of PHLF,whereas an increased preoperative HBV DNA level has a correlative relationship with an increased susceptibility to PHLF.

Review of Albanian studies suggests the need for further efforts to counteract significant hepatitis B virus prevalence

BACKGROUND Hepatitis B virus(HBV)is categorized as one of the smallest enveloped DNA viruses and is the prototypical virus of the Hepatoviridae family.It is usually transmitted through body fluids such as blood,semen,and vaginal secretions.The majority(more than 95%)of immunocompetent adults infected with HBV spontaneously clear the infection.In the context of the high prevalence of HBV infection in Albania,the research gap is characterized by the lack of studies aimed at advancing the current understanding and improving the prevailing situation.The main objective of this study was to address the low rate of HBV diagnosis and the lack of a comprehensive national program to facilitate widespread diagnosis.AIM To analyze the prevalence of HBV infection in Albania and elucidate the persistently high prevalence despite efforts and measures implemented.METHODS Using a systematic literature review,we collected existing research on the epidemiology of HBV in Albania from PubMed,Cochrane Library,Google Scholar,and Albanian Medical Journals,focusing on studies published after the 1980s and conducted solely in the Albanian population.RESULTS The findings reveal a dynamic shift in HBV prevalence in Albania over several decades.Initially high,the prevalence gradually declined following the implementation of screening and vaccination programs.However,the prevalence rates have remained notably high,exceeding 8%in recent years.Contributing factors include vertical transmission,inadequate healthcare infrastructure,and challenges in screening and diagnosis.Studies among Albanian refugees in neighboring countries also reported high prevalence rates,emphasizing the need for transnational interventions.Despite advancements in screening,vaccination,and healthcare infrastructure,Albania continues to face a substantial burden of HBV infection.CONCLUSION The persistence of high prevalence underscores the complexity of the issue,requiring ongoing efforts to ensure a comprehensive understanding and effective mitigation.Addressing gaps in vaccination coverage,improving access to screening and diagnosis,and enhancing public awareness are crucial steps toward reducing HBV prevalence in Albania.

Hepatitis B virus reactivation in patients treated with monoclonal antibodies

Hepatitis B virus(HBV)reactivation poses a significant clinical challenge,espe-cially in patients undergoing immunosuppressive therapies,including mono-clonal antibody treatments.This manuscript briefly explores the complex rela-tionship between monoclonal antibody therapy and HBV reactivation,drawing upon current literature and clinical case studies.It delves into the mechanisms underlying this phenomenon,highlighting the importance of risk assessment,monitoring,and prophylactic measures for patients at risk.The manuscript aims to enhance the understanding of HBV reactivation in the context of monoclonal antibody therapy,ultimately facilitating informed clinical decision-making and improved patient care.This paper will also briefly review the definition of HBV activation,assess the risks of reactivation,especially in patients treated with monoclonal antibodies,and consider management for patients with regard to screening,prophylaxis,and treatment.A better understanding of patients at risk can help clinicians provide optimum management to ensure successful patient outcomes and prevent morbidity.