Effects of projectile parameters on the momentum transfer and projectile melting during hypervelocity impact

The effects of projectile/target impedance matching and projectile shape on energy,momentum transfer and projectile melting during collisions are investigated by numerical simulation.By comparing the computation results with the experimental results,the correctness of the calculation and the statistical method of momentum transfer coefficient is verified.Different shapes of aluminum,copper and heavy tungsten alloy projectiles striking aluminum,basalt,and pumice target for impacts up to 10 km/s are simulated.The influence mechanism of the shape of the projectile and projectile/target density on the momentum transfer was obtained.With an increase in projectile density and length-diameter ratio,the energy transfer time between the projectile and targets is prolonged.The projectile decelerates slowly,resulting in a larger cratering depth.The energy consumed by the projectile in the excavation stage increased,resulting in lower mass-velocity of ejecta and momentum transfer coefficient.The numerical simulation results demonstrated that for different projectile/target combinations,the higher the wave impedance of the projectile,the higher the initial phase transition velocity and the smaller the mass of phase transition.The results can provide theoretical guidance for kinetic impactor design and material selection.

Experimental investigation of spectral evolution in flash radiation by hypervelocity impact on aluminum plates

In this study,a series of hypervelocity impact tests were carried out based on a two-stage light gas gun,and the sequence spectrum and radiation evolution data of the impact products under different impact conditions were obtained.The diameter of the projectile is 3-5 mm,the impact velocity is 3.13-6.58 km/s,and the chamber pressure is 0.56-990 Pa.The spectrum of ejected debris cloud in the 250-310 nm band were obtained using a transient spectral measurement system and a multi-channel radiometer measurement system.The test results reveal that the flash radiation intensity increases as a power function with the kinetic energy of the impact.Furthermore,the peak value of the line spectrum decreases as the chamber vacuum degree increases,while the radiation width gradually expands.The line spectrum in the spectral characterization curve corresponds to the ejected debris clouds splitting phase,which does not produce significant line spectrum during material fragmentation and is dominated by the continuum spectrum produced by blackbody radiation.There will appear one or three characteristic peaks in the flash radiation time curve,the first and second peaks correspond to the penetration phase and the third peak corresponds to the expansion phase of the ejected debris clouds on the time scale,the first and second peaks are more sensitive to the chamber vacuum degree,and when the pressure is higher than 99 Pa,the first and second characteristic peaks will disappear.The radiant heat attenuation of the flash under different impact conditions is significantly different,the attenuation exponent has a power function relationship with the impact velocity and the chamber vacuum degree,while the attenuation exponent has a linear relationship with the diameter of the projectile,the specific expression of the attenuation exponent is obtained by fitting.The findings from this research can serve as a valuable reference for remote diagnostic technologies based on flash radiation characteristics.

Experimental and numerical study of hypervelocity impact damage on composite overwrapped pressure vessels

Ground-based tests are important for studying hypervelocity impact(HVI)damage to spacecraft pressure vessels in the orbital debris environment.We analyzed the damage to composite overwrapped pressure vessels(COPVs)in the HVI tests and classified the damage into non-catastrophic damage and catastrophic damage.We proposed a numerical simulation method to further study non-catastrophic damage and revealed the characteristics and mechanisms of non-catastrophic damage affected by impact conditions and internal pressures.The fragments of the catastrophically damaged COPVs were collected after the tests.The crack distribution and propagation process of the catastrophic ruptures of the COPVs were analyzed.Our findings contribute to understanding the damage characteristics and mechanisms of COPVs by HVIs.

Satellite breakup behaviors and model under the hypervelocity impact and explosion:A review

The primary causes of satellite breakups are hypervelocity impact and explosion,the research on satellite breakup can be used not only to evaluate the influence of breakup event on the space environment,but also to trace whether the satellite has been deliberately attacked.It is of great significance in both civil and military aspects.The study of satellite breakup behaviors and model is reviewed to summarize the research progress and insufficiency in recent decades,including the satellite breakup experiment,measurement and characterization of fragments,distribution characteristics of breakup fragments,satellite breakup model,etc.The classical studies are introduced in detail,and the limitations of the current research are pointed out.According to the current research results,the contemporary challenges and future directions for satellite breakup study are presented.The research on satellite breakup is developing in two directions:the miniaturization of satellite size and the complexity of satellite component.The study on satellite breakup needs to be explored and deepened on improving the experimental launch speed,expanding the model application range and breakup revealing the results under combined effect of impact and explosion.

Preliminary Study on Diagnostic Techniques for Transient Plasma Generated by Hypervelocity Impact

A fast-sweep Langmuir probe （FSLP） diagnostic system was designed and applied to obtain the electron temperature fluctuations of a transient plasma. The diagnostic system consists of a single Langmuir probe driven by a high frequency sinusoidal voltage. The current-voltage I- V characteristics can be recorded by sweeping the voltage and measuring the current with an appropriate circuit. This new instrument is based on a dual channel circuit that compensates for stray capacitance. The current and voltage spectra were acquired from the probe synchronously by a digital oscilloscope. The aim of this work was to apply the FSLP diagnostic system to a time- dependent plasma generated by a hypervelocity impact between the LY12 Aluminum projectile and LY12 Aluminum target.

Grain refinement process of pure iron target under hypervelocity impact

The structure of ultrafine grain is formed at the crater bottom of pure iron target under hypervelocity impact. The microstructures of different layers at the crater bottom were characterized by optical microscopy （OM）, scanning electron microscopy （SEM） and transmission electron microscopy （TEM）. The cross-section observation was performed to reveal the grain refinement process driven by plastic deformation. Firstly, low energy dislocation structures （LEDS） such as dense dislocation walls （DDWs） and dislocation tangles （DTs） refine the original grains and form intersecting lamellar structures. With increasing strain, DDWs and DTs transform into subboundaries with small misorientations to separate lamellar structure to cells. Subboundaries are converted to high misorientation grain boundaries, so ultrafine grains are formed. The formation of ultrafine grains was discussed in the dynamic recrystallization process due to the large strain and strain rate induced by spherical shock wave.

Analysis of the stress wave and rarefaction wave produced by hypervelocity impact of sphere onto thin plate

Shock wave is emitted into the plate and sphere when a sphere hypervelocity impacts onto a thin plate.The fragmentation and phase change of the material caused by the propagation and unloading of shock wave could result in the formation of debris cloud eventually.Propagation models are deduced based on one-dimensional shock wave theory and the geometry of sphere,which uses elliptic equations(corresponding to ellipsoid equations in physical space)to describe the propagation of shock wave and the rarefaction wave.The“Effective thickness”is defined as the critical plate thickness that ensures the rarefaction wave overtake the shock wave at the back of the sphere.The“Effective thickness”is directly related to the form of the debris cloud.The relation of the“Effective thickness”and the“Optimum thickness”is also discussed.The impacts of Al spheres onto Al plates are simulated within SPH to verify the propagation models and associated theories.The results show that the wave fronts predicted by the propagation models are closer to the simulation result at higher impact velocity.The curvatures of the wave fronts decrease with the increase of impact velocities.The predicted“Effective thickness”is consistent with the simulation results.The analysis about the shock wave propagation and unloading in this paper can provide a new sight and inspiration for the quantitative study of hypervelocity impact and space debris protection.

Research and development on hypervelocity impact protection using Whipple shield:An overview

Whipple shield,a dual-wall system,as well as its improved structures,is widely applied to defend the hypervelocity impact of space debris(projectile).This paper reviews the studies about the mechanism and process of protection against hypervelocity impacts using Whipple shield.Ground-based experiment and numerical simulation for hypervelocity impact and protection are introduced briefly.Three steps of the Whipple shield protection are discussed in order,including the interaction between the projectile and bumper,the movement and diffusion of the debris cloud,and the interaction between the debris cloud and rear plate.Potential improvements of the protection performance focusing on these three steps are presented.Representative works in the last decade are mentioned specifically.Some prospects and suggestions for future studies are put forward.

Sweep Langmuir Probe and Triple Probe Diagnostics for Transient Plasma Produced by Hypervelocity Impact

Two techniques are applied to diagnose characteristic parameters of plasma created by hypervelocity impact, such as electron temperature and electron density. The first technique is a sweep Langmuir probe （SLP）, which is a new apparatus based on a dual channel circuit that can compensate for stray capacitance and obtain a good synchronicity, so that electrostatic turbulence with a good temporal resolution can be acquired. The second technique is a triple Langmuir probe （TLP）, which is an electrostatic triple Langmuir probe diagnostic system, in which no voltage and frequency sweep is required. This technique allows to measure electron temperature, electron density as a function of time. Moreover, the triple Langmuir probe diagnostic system allows the direct display of electron temperature and semidirect display of electron density by an appropriate display system, the system permits us to eliminate almost all data processing procedures. SLP and TLP were applied to obtain fluctuations of the characteristic parameters of plasma generated by hypervelocity impact. As an example of their application to time-dependent plasma measure- ment, the electron temperature and electron density of plasmas were acquired in hypervelocity impact experiments. Characteristic parameters of plasma generated by hypervelocity impact were compared by the two kinds of diagnostic techniques mentioned above.

EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS OF HYPERVELOCITY IMPACT ONTO ALUMINIUM DUAL-PLATE STRUCTURE

Dual-plate structure is very effective in the protection of space vehicle from hypervelocity im- pact.The experiments of A1 projectile impacting A1 dual targets at the velocity ranging over 2.5—7.0 km/s were systematically conducted.The damage effects were examined,including the perforation of the shield, the development of debris cloud and the general damage characteristics of the subplate.Many valuable experi- mental data and phenomena have been obtained

Evidence in Oman for Mantle Excavating Hypervelocity Impact at the Cenomanian-Turonian Boundary?

Speculation that elliptical to circular segments of surface exposed lithospheric mantle belts might mark rims of large terrestrial impact basins suggests that the ophiolite rimmed Sulu Sea, Loyalty and Yucatan basins may have resulted from middle Miocene, late Eocene and K-Pg boundary mantle excavating hypervelocity impacts on Earth(Olds, 2019). The Semail ophiolite suggests such a circular rim segment with a ~250 km radius of curvature implying an originally ~500 km diameter impact basin before subsequent deformation/destruction at plate boundaries. Presently the Arabian plate is being actively consumed at the Makran subduction zone(Penney et al., 2017) which evidently will result in subduction of the Gulf of Oman and suturing of the adjacent Semail ophiolite in the near geological future. For large impact basins on the rocky planets, O’Keefe and Ahrens(1993) estimate maximum excavation depth to be roughly 5% of final crater diameter. In this case maximum ejecta source depths of ~25 km are implied, a number roughly comparable with observed thicknesses of crust plus mantle sections for the Semail ophiolite(Aldega et al., 2017) and depths of burial due to over-thrusting(obduction) implied by the exhumed metamorphic sole(Cowan et al., 2014). Hacker et al.(1996) and Roberts et al.(2016) place peak metamorphism timing of the Semail metamorphic sole within uncertainty of the C-T Boundary at 94 Ma. Study of possible correlation of peak obduction timing with end-Cenomanian global extinction plus anoxic events(Wan et al., 2003) and C-T boundary impact ejecta plus tsunami deposits(Monteiro et al., 2001) may be warranted.

Experimental and analytical assessment of the hypervelocity impact damage of GLAss fiber REinforced aluminum

This article addresses the response of GLAss fiber REinforced aluminum to hypervelocity impacts of micrometeoroid analogs at impact velocities of 7 km/s and beyond.In relation,the damage modes of different GLAss fiber REinforced aluminum configurations have been exemplified.The GLAss fiber REinforced aluminum configurations comprised six to twelve variably thick aluminum layers and up to four plies of glass fiber reinforced epoxy per composite laminate.Hypervelocity impact experiments have been conducted with the help of a two-stage light-gas gun,wherein aluminum-and stainless steel projectiles were launched at velocities up to 7.15 km/s.Visual inspection of the damage area suggested the dissipation of impact energy in elastic-plastic deformation,petalling,delamination,debonding,tensile failure of fibers,and pyrolysis of epoxy.A prevailing damage mode was not apparent albeit.The quasi-isotropic ply orientation of S2-glass/FM94-epoxy laminates promoted the interference of shockand rarefaction waves and suppressed the damage area of GLAss fiber REinforced aluminum.To discriminate between the impact performance of different GLAss fiber REinforced aluminum configurations,the energy dissipated in different damage modes of GLAss fiber REinforced aluminum has been assessed quantitatively.In terms of normalized energy,the cross-ply GLAss fiber REinforced aluminum dissipated higher energy in petal formation than in other primary damage modes.The normalized petalling energy was found to decline with the increase of impact energy.The outcomes of this study will help to optimize the GLAss fiber REinforced aluminum laminate,which will be employed as a bumper shield to prevent the fatal damage and the unzipping of a spacecraft pressure bulkhead.

SPH Simulation of Hypervelocity Impacts

The smooth particle hydrodynamics (SPH) method is a very important tool to resolve hypervelocity problems. The basic principle of SPH method and how to generate a proper SPH mesh is described. The results of SPH simulations of hypervelocity impacts on thin or thick aluminum plates, performed by using the LS-DYNA 3D computer code, are also reported. The forming process and composition of the debris clouds simulated are identical with the experiment results. It can be concluded that the simulation is reasonable and SPH method is an ideal method for hypervelocity impact simulation..

Characteristics of Polyimide Debris Clouds Produced by Hypervelocity Impact

Polyimide is a typical complex high-molecular polymer of imide monomers,which is widely used in the manufacture of parts for aerospace engineering.The hypervelocity impacts between the spacecraft and orbital debris can induce great damage to the spacecraft.In order to improve the safety of spacecraft,the characteristics of polyimide debris clouds produced by hypervelocity impact should be studied.Firstly,a Mie-Grüneisen equation of state based on the shock adiabat for polyimide,which describes the mechanical behavior in the numerical simulation,was obtained from hypervelocity impact experiments,then a 3-dimentional smoothed particle hydrodynamics program was compiled to numerically simulate the hypervelocity impact between aluminum projectiles(orbital debris)and polyimide targets with different impact velocities(3.km/s,5.km/s,8.km/s)and angles(0°,30°,45°,60°),finally typical shapes of debris clouds produced in different impact velocities and angles were collected from simulation results,the characteristics of which were systemically discussed.

Damage Characteristics of the Logical Chip Module Due to Plasma Created by Hypervelocity Impacts

To researching the damage characteristics of typical logical chip modules in spacecraft due to plasma generated by hypervelocity impacts,we have established a triple Langmuir probe diagnostic system and a logical chips measurement system,which were used to diagnose plasma characteristic parameters and the logical chip module＇s logical state changes due to the plasma created by a 7075 aluminum projectile hypervelocity impact on the 2A12 aluminum target.Three sets of experiments were performed with the collision speeds of 2.85 km/s,3.1 km/s and2.20 km/s,at the same incident angles of 30 degrees and logical chip module＇s positions by using a two-stage light gas gun loading system,a plasma characteristic parameters diagnostic system and a logical chip module＇s logical state measurement system,respectively.Electron temperature and density were measured at given position and azimuth,and damage estimation was performed for the logical chip module by using the data acquisition system.Experimental results showed that temporary damage could be induced on logical chip modules in spacecraft by plasma generated by hypervelocity impacts under the given experimental conditions and the sensors＇ position and azimuth.

Investigation into debris cloud characterizations for oblique hypervelocity impact of projectiles on bumper

All long-duration spacecraft in low-earth-orbit are subject to high velocity impacts by meteoroids and space debris. Such impacts are expected to occur at non-normal incidence angles and can cause severe damage to the spacecraft and its external flight-critical systems and possibly lead to catastrophic failure of the spacecraft. In order to ensure crew safety and proper function of internal and external spacecraft systems, the characteristics of a debris cloud generated by such impacts must be known. An analytical model is therefore developed for the characterization of the penetration and ricochet debris clouds created by the hypervelocity impact of an aluminum spherical projectile on an aluminum plate. This model employs normal and oblique shock wave theory to characterize the penetration and ricochet processes. The prediction results of center-of-mass trajectory and leading velocity of penetration and ricochet debris clouds are obtained and compared with numerical and experimental results in figures.

Analysis and Prediction of Hole Penetrated in Thin Plates under Hypervelocity Impacts of Cylindrical Projectiles

The hole penetrated in thin metallic plates due to hypervelocity impacts of cylindrical projectiles was analyzed by experimental method.The projectile caused a hole-expanding effect when penetrating the target plate because of dynamic shear failure and extrusion.A new empirical model was presented to predict the perforation diameter in thin plates impacted by high-velocity cylindrical projectiles.The fitting coefficients resulted in a root-mean-square of 0.0641 and a correlation coefficient of 0.991.The errors between the predicted and the experimental values were less than 7.251%,and less than 4.705%for 93.333%cases of the dataset.The accuracy of the proposed model is much higher than that of Hill's model.Compared with historical equations,the new model is more accurate and can well describe the variations of different parameters with the normalized penetrated hole.The model takes into account the strength of materials,which contributes to the excellent results.This paper could provide important theoretical support for the analysis of the perforation process and its mechanism.

Debris cloud structure and hazardous fragments distribution under hypervelocity yaw impact

This study investigates how the debris cloud structure and hazardous fragment distribution vary with attack angle by simulating a circular cylinder projectile hypervelocity impinging on a thin plate using the finite element-smoothed particle hydrodynamics(FE-SPH)adaptive method.Based on the comparison and analysis of the experimental and simulation results,the FE-SPH adaptive method was applied to address the hypervelocity yaw impact problem,and the variation law of the debris cloud structure with the attack angle was obtained.The screening criterion of the hazardous fragment at yaw impact is given by analyzing the debris formation obtained by the FE-SPH adaptive method,and the distribution characteristics of hazardous fragments and their relationship with the attack angle are given.Moreover,the velocity space was used to evaluate the distribution range and damage capability of asymmetric hazardous fragments.The maximum velocity angle was extended from fully symmetrical working conditions to asymmetrical cases to describe the asymmetrical debris cloud distribution range.In this range,the energy density was calculated to quantitatively analyze how much damage hazardous fragments inflict on the rear plate.The results showed that the number of hazardous fragments generated by the case near the 35°attack angle was the largest,the distribution range was the smallest,and the energy density was the largest.These results suggest that in this case,debris cloud generated by the impact had the strongest damage to the rear plate.

Study on damage mechanism and damage distribution of the rear plate under impact of debris cloud

The debris cloud generated by the hypervelocity impact(HVI)of orbiting space debris directly threatens the spacecraft.A full understanding of the damage mechanism of rear plate is useful for the optimal design of protective structures.In this study,the hypervelocity yaw impact of a cylindrical aluminum projectile on a double-layer aluminum plate is simulated by the FE-SPH adaptive method,and the damage process of the rear plate under the impact of the debris cloud is analyzed based on the debris cloud structure.The damage process can be divided into the main impact stage of the debris cloud and the structural response of the rear plate.The main impact stage lasts a short time and is the basis of the rear plate damage.In the stage of structure response,the continuous deformation and inertial motion of the rear plate dominate the perforation of the rear plate.We further analyze the damage mechanism and damage distribution characteristics of the rear plate in detail.Moreover,the connection between velocity space and position space of the debris cloud is established,which promotes the general analysis of the damage law of debris cloud.Based on the relationship,the features of typical damage areas are identified by the localized fine analysis.Both the cumulative effect and structural response cause the perforation of rear plate;in the non-perforated area,cratering by the impact of hazardous fragments is the main damage mode of the rear plate.

Preliminary Study on Magnetic Induction Intensity Induced by Plasma During Hypervelocity Impact

An experimental system has been built to produce and measure the magnetic field in the backward ejected matter during hypervelocity impact. The designs of measurement system and coil, the choice of associated equipment, and the system calibration are also described in detail. The measurement of magnetic induction intensity for different given coil positions and azimuth angles are performed with two-stage light-gas gun. On condition that impact velocities are approximately equal and incidence angles are 45°, 60° and 90° respectively, the relationship between average magnetic induction intensity and impact angle at different time spans is obtained. Experimental results show that the average magnetic induction intensity with incidence angle of 90° is larger than those with incidence angles of 45°and 60°.