Meteorite impact craters as hotspots for mineral resources and energy fuels:A global review

The ever-increasing recovery rate of natural resources from terrestrial impact craters over the last fewdecades across the globe offers new avenues for further exploration of mineral and hydrocarbon resources in such settings.As of today,60 of the 208 terrestrial craters have been identified to host diverseresources such as hydrocarbons,metals and construction materials.The potential of craters as plausibleresource contributors to the energy sector is therefore,worthy of consideration,as 42(70%)of the 60craters host energy resources such as oil,gas,coal,uranium,mercury,critical and major minerals as wellas hydropower resources.Among others,19 craters are of well-developed hydrocarbon reserves.Mineraldeposits associated with craters are also classified similar to other mineral resources such as progenetic,syngenetic and epigenetic sources.Of these,the progenetic and syngenetic mineralization are confinedto the early and late excavation stage of impact crater evolution,respectively,whereas epigenetic deposits are formed during and after the modification stage of crater formation.Thus,progenetic andsyngenetic mineral deposits(like Fe,Ni,Pb,Zn and Cu)associated with craters are formed as a directresult of the impact event,whereas epigenetic deposits(e.g.hydrocarbon)are hosted by the impactstructure and result from post-impact processes.In the progenetic and syngenetic deposits,the shockwave induced fracturing and melting aid the formation of deposits,whereas in the epigenetic deposits,the highly fractured lithostratigraphic units of higher porosity and permeability,like the centralelevated area(CEA)or the rim,act as traps.In this review,we provide a holistic view of the mineral andenergy resources associated with impact craters,and use some of the remote sensing techniques toidentify the mineral deposits as supplemented by a schematic model of the types of deposits formedduring cratering process.

Automatic extraction of lunar impact craters from Chang'E-1 satellite photographs

The distribution characteristics of the impact craters can provide a large amount of information on impact history and the lunar evolution process. In this research, based on the digital elevation model （DEM） data originating from Change＇E-1 CCD stereo camera, three automatic extraction methods for the impact craters are implemented in two research areas： direct extraction from flooded DEM data （the Flooded method）, object-oriented extraction from DEM data by using ENVI ZOOM function （the Object-Oriented method） and novel object-oriented extraction from flooded DEM data （the Flooded Object-Oriented method）. Accuracy assessment, extracted degree computation, cumulative frequency analysis, shape and age analysis of the extracted craters combined display the following results. （1） The Flooded Object-Oriented method yields better accuracy than the other two methods in the two research areas; the extraction result of the Flooded method offers the similar accuracy to that of the Object-Oriented method. （2） The cumulative frequency curves for the extracted craters and the confirmed craters share a simi- lar change trajectory. （3） The number of the impact craters extracted by the three methods in the Imbrian period is the largest and is of various types; as to their age earlier than lmbrain, it is difficult to extract because they could have been destroyed.

Impact Craters with Circular and Isolated Secondary Craters on the Continuous Secondaries Facies on the Moon

On airless bodies such as the Moon and Mercury, secondary craters on the continuous secondaries facies of fresh craters mostly occur in chains and clusters. They have very irregular shapes. Secondaries on the continuous secondaries facies of some Martian and Mercurian craters are more isolated from each other in distribution and are more circular in shape, probably due to the effect of target properties on the impact excavation process. This paper studies secondaries on the continuous secondaries facies of all fresh lunar complex craters using recently-obtained high resolution images. After a global search, we find that 3 impact craters and basins on the Moon have circular and isolated secondaries on the continuous secondaries facies similar to those on Mercury： the Orientale basin, the Antoniadi crater, and the Compton crater. The morphological differences between such special secondaries and typical lunar secondaries are quantitatively compared and analyzed. Our preliminary analyses suggest that the special secondaries were probably caused by high temperature gradients within the local targets when these craters and basins formed. The high-temperature of the targets could have affected the impact excavation process by causing higher ejection angles, giving rise to more scattered circular secondaries.

Condensed Matter Analogy of Impact Crater Formation

Impact craters exist on various solid objects in the planetary system. A simplified analogy of the process of their formation is here analyzed by standard solid state physics and the so called dynamic quantized fracture mechanics. An expression which links the crater volume to the parameters of the impactor and the target is obtained within the two approaches. For low impactor energy, this expression is of the same mathematical form as the one resulting from recent experiments. It is shown that the formation of an impact crater is possible even without heating of the target, if the critical stress in the target satisfies certain conditions. The critical value of the stress needed for the occurence of a fracture is calculated for three craters： two terrestrial and one lunar craters. The approach presented here uses only measurable material parameters, and therefore is more realistic than the treatement of the same problem using the cohesive energy of materials.

Impact crater recognition methods:A review

Impact craters are formed due to the high-speed collisions between small to medium-sized celestial bodies.Impact is the most significant driving force in the evolution of celestial bodies,and the impact craters provide crucial insights into the formation,evolution,and impact history of celestial bodies.In this paper,we present a detailed review of the characteristics of impact craters,impact crater remote sensing data,recognition algorithms,and applications related to impact craters.We first provide a detailed description of the geometric texture,illumination,and morphology characteristics observed in remote sensing data of craters.Then we summarize the remote sensing data and cataloging databases for the four terrestrial planets(i.e.,the Moon,Mars,Mercury,and Venus),as well as the impact craters on Ceres.Subsequently,we study the advancement achieved in the traditional methods,machine learning methods,and deep learning methods applied to the classification,segmentation,and recognition of impact craters.Furthermore,based on the analysis results,we discuss the existing challenges in impact crater recognition and suggest some solutions.Finally,we explore the implementation of impact crater detection algorithms and provide a forward-looking perspective.

An updated constraint on the local stratigraphy at the Chang'E-4 landing site

The Chang’E-4 mission has been exploring the lunar farside.Two scientific targets of the rover onboard are(1)resolving the possible mineralogy related to the South Pole-Aitken basin and(2)understanding the subsurface processes at the lunar farside.Publications to date that are based on the reflectance spectra and radar data obtained by the rover have shown a persistent inconsistency about the local stratigraphy.To explain both the abnormal surface topography at the landing site and the unexpected radargram observed by the rover,the Alder crater has been frequently reported to be older than the mare basalts at that landing site.However,this argument is not supported by earlier geological mapping nor recent crater statistics.Resolving this controversy is critical for a full understanding of the geological history of the landing area and for correct interpretations of the scientific data returned.Employing detailed crater statistics,rigorous statistical analyses,and an updated crater chronology function,this study is determined to resolve the relative ages of the Alder crater,Finsen crater,and the mare basalts on the floor of Von Kármán.Our results reveal that while background secondaries and local resurfacing have widely occurred in the study area,affecting age determinations,the statistics are significant enough to conclude that the Alder crater is the oldest among the three targets.This independent constraint is consistent with both the crosscutting relationships of different terrains in this area and global stratigraphic mapping.Our results exclude Alder as a possible contributor of the post-mare deposits at the landing site,appealing for a more systematic stratigraphy study to resolve the provenances of these deposits.

Progresses and prospects of impact crater studies

Crater is a geologic structure in solid bodies(including the terrestrial planets, moons, and asteroids) formed by hyperspeed impact, and the impact process is extremely important to the formation and evolution of these celestial bodies. This paper presents a review of the studies on remote sensing observation, formation mechanism, and scientific application of craters. On the remote sensing study of craters, the topographic characteristics of the micro-craters, simple craters, complex craters, and impact basins are described,the related parameters in the morphological studies of craters are subsequently introduced, and the distribution characteristics of the minerals and rock types during the impact excavation process are analyzed,the methods of crater identification and the crater databases on the Moon, Mars, Ceres, and Vesta are summarized. On the studies of crater formation mechanism, the general formation process of the craters is firstly described, and then the most frequently used methods are presented, and the importance of the empirical equations is also elucidated. On the scientific applications of the craters, the principle and currently utilization of the planetary surface dating method with crater size-frequency distribution are firstly presented, and the applications, including modeling the lunar regolith formation and thickness derivation of both the regolith and basalt, are reviewed. Finally, the future prospects of the formation mechanism study of the craters are discussed.

Fine debris flows formed by the Orientale basin

The prototype for investigations of formation mechanisms and related geological effects of large impact basins on planetary bodies has been the Orientale basin on the Moon.Its widespread secondaries,light plains,and near-rim melt flows have been well mapped in previous studies.Flow features are also widely associated with secondaries on planetary bodies,but their physical properties are not well constrained.The nature of flow features associated with large impact basins are critically important to understand the emplacement process of basin ejecta,which is one of the most fundamental processes in shaping the shallow crusts of planetary bodies.Here we use multisource remote sensing data to constrain the physical properties of flow features formed by the secondaries of the Orientale basin.The results suggest that such flows are dominated by centimeter-scale fine debris fines;larger boulders are not abundant.The shattering of target materials during the excavation of the Orientale basin,landing impact of ejecta that formed the secondaries,and grain comminution within the flows have substantially reduced particle sizes,forming the fine flows.The discovery of global-wide fine debris flows formed by large impact basins has profound implications to the interpretation of both previously-returned samples and remote sensing data.

Australasian microtektites across the Antarctic continent: Evidence from the Sør Rondane Mountain range (East Antarctica)

The~790 ka Australasian(micro)tektite strewn field is one of the most recent and best-known examples of impact ejecta emplacement as the result of a large-scale cratering event across a considerable part of Earth's surface(>10%in area).The Australasian strewn field is characterized by a tri-lobe pattern consisting of a large central distribution lobe,and two smaller side lobes extending to the west and east.Here,we report on the discovery of microtektite-like particles in sedimentary traps,containing abundant micrometeorite material,in the Sør Rondane Mountain(SRM)range of East Antarctica.The thirty-three glassy particles display a characteristic pale yellowcolor and are predominantly spherical in shape,except for a single dumbbell-shaped particle.The vitreous spherules range in size from220 to 570μm,with an average diameter of~370μm.This compares relatively well with the size distribution(75–778μm)of Australasian microtektites previously recovered from the TransantarcticMountains(TAM)and located ca.2500–3000 km fromthe SRM.In addition,the chemical composition of the SRM particles exhibits limited variation and is nearly identical to the‘normal-type’(i.e.,<6%MgO)TAM microtektites.The Sr and Nd isotope systematics for a single batch of SRM particles(n=26)strongly support their affiliation with TAMmicrotektites and the Australasian tektite strewn field in general.Furthermore,Sr isotope ratios and Nd model ages suggest that the target material of the SRM particles was composed of a plagioclase-or carbonate-rich lithology derived from a Paleo-or Mesoproterozoic crustal unit.The affiliation to the Australasian strewn field requires long-range transportation,with estimated great circle distances of ca.11,600 km from the hypothetical source crater,provided transportation occurred along the central distribution lobe.This is in agreement with the observations made for the Australasian microtektites recovered from Victoria Land(ca.11,000 km)and Larkman Nunatak(ca.12,000 km),which,on average,decrease in size and alkali concentrations(e.g.,Na and K)as their distance from the source crater increases.The values for the SRMparticles are intermediate to those of the Victoria Land and Larkman Nunatak microtektites for both parameters,thus supporting this observation.We therefore interpret the SRM particles as‘normal-type’Australasian microtektites,which significantly extend the central distribution lobe of the Australasian strewn field westward.Australasian microtektite distribution thus occurred on a continent-wide scale across Antarctica and allows for the identification of new,potential recovery sites on the Antarctic continent as well as the southeastern part of the Indian Ocean.Similar to volcanic ash layers,the~790 ka distal Australasian impact ejecta are thus a record of an instantaneous event that can be used for time-stratigraphic correlation across Antarctica.

A rocky hill on the continuous ejecta of Ziwei crater revealed by the Chang’e-3 mission

The Chinese Chang’e-3 mission landed close to the eastern rim of the ~450 m diameter Ziwei crater. Regional stratigraphy of the landing site and impact excavation model suggest that the bulk continuous ejecta deposits of the Ziwei crater are composed by Erathothenian-aged mare basalts. Along the traverse of the Yutu rover, the western segment features a gentle topographic uplift(~0.5 m high over ~4 m), which is spatially connected with the structurally-uplifted crater rim. Assuming that this broad topographic uplift has physical properties discontinuous with materials below, we use data returned by the high-frequency lunar penetrating radar onboard the Yutu rover to estimate the possible range of relative permittivity for this topographic uplift. Only when the relative permittivity is ~9 is the observed radar reflection consistent with the observed topography, suggesting that the topographic uplift is composed of basaltic blocks that were excavated by the Ziwei crater. This result is consistent both with the impact excavation model that predicts deeper basaltic materials being deposited closer to the crater rim, and with observation of numerous half-buried boulders on the surface of this hill. We note that this study is the first to use topography and radargram data to estimate the relative permittivity of lunar surface uplifts, an approach that has had many successful applications on Mars. Similar approaches can apply other ground penetrating radar data for the Moon, such as will be available from the ongoing Chang’e-4 mission.

What happened at Precambrian-Cambrian boundary

The Precambrian-Cambrian boundary represents one of the most puzzling and intriguing transitions in Earth history. One of the former hypotheses put forward an evolutional mechanism after a bolide impact, which is still uncertain. Anyhow, biological and geological studies seem to be favorable to an impact. Three most important elements were discovered and thus shed light upon the issue.

Subsurface Structures at the Chang'e-3 Landing Site: Interpretations from Orbital and In-Situ Imagery Data

The Chang＇e-3（CE-3） spacecraft successfully landed on one of the youngest mare surfaces on the Moon in December 2013. The Yutu rover carried by CE-3 was equipped with a radar system that could reveal subsurface structures in unprecedented details, which would facilitate understanding regional and global evolutionary history of the Moon. Based on regional geology, cratering scaling, and morphological study, here we quantify the subsurface structures of the landing site using high-resolution orbital and in-situ imagery data. Three layers of lunar regolith, two layers of basalt units, and one layer of ejecta deposits are recognized at the subsurface of the landing site, and their thicknesses are deduced based on the imagery data. These results could serve as essential references for the on-going interpretation of the CE-3 radar data. The ability to validate our theoretical subsurface structure using CE-3 in-situ radar observations will improve the methods for quantifying lunar subsurface structure using crater morphologies and scaling.

Global case studies of soft-sediment deformation structures(SSDS): Definitions,classifications, advances, origins, and problems

Soft-sediment deformation structures（SSDS）have been the focus of attention for over 150 years.Existing unconstrained definitions allow one to classify a wide range of features under the umbrella phrase＂SSDS＂.As a consequence,a plethora of at least 120 different types of SSDS（e.g.,convolute bedding,slump folds,load casts,dish-and-pillar structures,pockmarks,raindrop imprints,explosive sandegravel craters,clastic injections,crushed and deformed stromatolites,etc.）have been recognized in strata ranging in age from Paleoproterozoic to the present time.The two factors that control the origin of SSDS are prelithification deformation and liquidization.A sedimentological compendium of 140 case studies of SSDS worldwide,which include 30 case studies of scientific drilling at sea（DSDP/ODP/IODP）,published during a period between 1863and 2017,has yielded at least 31 different origins.Earthquakes have remained the single most dominant cause of SSDS because of the prevailing＂seismite＂mindset.Selected advances on SSDS research are：（1）an experimental study that revealed a quantitative similarity between raindrop-impact cratering and asteroid-impact cratering;（2）IODP Expedition 308 in the Gulf of Mexico that documented extensive lateral extent（〉12 km）of mass-transport deposits（MTD）with SSDS that are unrelated to earthquakes;（3）contributions on documentation of pockmarks,on recognition of new structures,and on large-scale sediment deformation on Mars.Problems that hinder our understanding of SSDS still remain.They are：（1）vague definitions of the phrase＂soft-sediment deformation＂;（2）complex factors that govern the origin of SSDS;（3）omission of vital empirical data in documenting vertical changes in facies using measured sedimentological logs;（4）difficulties in distinguishing depositional processes from tectonic events;（5）a model-driven interpretation of SSDS（i.e.,earthquake being the singular cause）;（6）routine application of the genetic term＂seismites＂to the＂SSDS＂,thus undermining the basic tenet of process sedimentology（i.e.,separation of interpretation from observation）;（7）the absence of objective criteria to differentiate 21 triggering mechanisms of liquefaction and related SSDS;（8）application of the process concept＂high-density turbidity currents＂,a process that has never been documented in modern oceans;（9）application of the process concept＂sediment creep＂with a velocity connotation that cannot be inferred from the ancient record;（10）classification of pockmarks,which are hollow spaces（i.e.,without sediments）as SSDS,with their problematic origins by fluid expulsion,sediment degassing,fish activity,etc.;（11）application of the Earth＇s climate-change model;and most importantly,（12）an arbitrary distinction between depositional process and sediment deformation.Despite a profusion of literature on SSDS,our understanding of their origin remains muddled.A solution to the chronic SSDS problem is to utilize the robust core dataset from scientific drilling at sea（DSDP/ODP/IODP）with a constrained definition of SSDS.