Exploration of deep seabed polymetallic sulphides: Scientific rationale and regulations of the International Seabed Authority

Polymetallic sulphides have been consistent source of metals like iron, copper, zinc and lead. Apart from these they are also seen as economically viable resources of silver and gold. As the demand of these metals is showing an astoundingly increasing trend, the search for their resources has also increased in similar folds. This has resulted in many nations' focus on deep seabed resources of the polymetallic sulphides. Consequently, International Seabed Authority (ISBA) has provided 'Regulations' to obtain plan of work for exploration of polymetallic sulphide deposits in deep seabed 'Area'. Following the release of these Regulations, several countries are in the process of obtaining the licence for exploration of these metals from the deep seabed regions. Detailed information about the science and ISBA Regulations for exploration of polymetallic sulphide deposits is prerequisite to submit an application to ISBA for their exploration. The current contribution provides a comprehensive review of the science behind locating polymetallic sulphide deposits in geological setting of deep seabed as well as about the ISBA Regulations for their exploration.

Spatial and temporal variation process of seabed dynamic response induced by the internal solitary wave

Internal solitary wave(ISW)is often accompanied by huge energy transport,which will change the pore water pressure in the seabed.Based on the two-dimensional Biot consolidation theory,the excess pore water pressure in seabed was simulated,and the spatiotemporal distribution characteristics of excess pore water pressure was studied.As the parameters of both ISW and seabed can affect the excess pore water pressure,the distribution of pore water pressure showed both dissipation and phase lag.And parametric studies were done on these two phenomena.Due to influenced by the phase lag of excess pore water pressure,the penetration depth under the site of northern South China Sea with total water depth 327 m,induced by typical internal solitary wave increased by 26.19%,53.27%and 149.86%from T_(0)to T_(0.5)in sand silt,clayey silt and fine sand seabed,respectively.That means the effect of ISW on seabed will be underestimated if we only take into accout the penetration depth under ISW trough,especially for fine sand seabed.In addition,the concept of“amplitude-depth ratio”had been introduced to describe the influence of ISW on seabed dynamic response in the actual marine environment.In present study,it is negatively correlated with the excess pore water pressure,and an ISW with smaller amplitude-depth ratio can wide the range of lateral impacts.Our study results help understand the seabed damage induced by the interaction between ISW and seabed.

Nonlinear Analysis of Flexible and Steel Catenary Risers with Internal Flow and Seabed Interaction Effects

Flexible risers and steel catenary risers often provide unique riser solutions for today’s deepwater field development. Accurate analysis of these slender structures, in which there are high-speed HP/HT internal flows, is critical to ensure personnel and asset safety. In this study, a special global coordinate-based FEM rod model was adopted to identify and quantify the effects of internal flow and hydrostatic pressure on both flexible and deepwater steel catenary risers, with emphasis on the latter. By incorporating internal flow induced forces into the model, it was found that the internal flow contributes a new term to the effective tension expression. For flexible risers in shallow water, internal flow and hydrostatic pressure made virtually no change to effective tension by merely altering the riser wall tension. In deep water the internal pressure wielded a dominant role in governing the riser effective tension and furthering the static configuration, while the effect of inflow velocity was negligible. With respect to the riser seabed interaction, both the seabed support and friction effect were considered, with the former modeled by a nonlinear quadratic spring, allowing for a consistent derivation of the tangent stiffness matrix. The presented application examples show that the nonlinear quadratic spring is, when using the catenary solution as an initial static profile, an efficient way to model the quasi-Winkler-type elastic seabed foundation in this finite element scheme.

Coupling model for waves propagating over a porous seabed

The wave-seabed interaction issue is of great importance for the design of foundation around marine infrastructures. Most previous investigations for such a problem have been limited to uncoupled or one- way coupled methods connecting two separated wave and seabed sub models with the continuity of pressures at the seabed surface. In this study, a strongly coupled model was proposed to realize both wave and seabed processes in a same program and to calculate the wave fields and seabed response simultaneously. The information between wave fields and seabed fields were strongly shared and thus results in a more profound investigation of the mechanism of the wave-seabed interaction. In this letter, the wave and seabed models were validated with previous experimental tests. Then, a set of application of present model were discussed in prediction of the wave-induced seabed response. Numerical results show the wave-induced liquefaction area of coupled model is smaller than that of uncoupled model.

内孤立波作用下新概念人工海床水动力载荷及流场特性研究

新概念人工海床能够有效提升海上油气开发装备对强风、巨浪和表面强流等海面灾害性海洋环境要素的适应性,但内波产生的巨大冲击载荷是影响人工海床作业安全的关键因素。本文研究内孤立波作用下新概念人工海床水动力载荷及流场特性问题。首先,以eKdV方程为理论模型,采用速度入口造波方法,建立三维内孤立波数值水槽,实现内孤立波的数值造波;在此基础上,对数值造波的波形与理论波形和试验波形进行对比,验证数值方法的有效性;最后,计算内孤立波作用于人工海床的水动力载荷,详细研究不同内孤立波振幅下人工海床的受力特性,分析人工海床周围的速度场和涡量场。研究结果表明:随着内孤立波振幅的增加,人工海床所受的拖曳力、垂向力和升力均逐渐增加,且拖曳力和垂向力远大于升力;当内孤立波经过人工海床时,人工海床周围的流体质点速度增大,涡强度增大。本研究可为大型水下工程结构物的内孤立波载荷预报及流场特性分析提供一种有效的数值计算方法。

中国国际海底区域资源勘查开发:现状分析与战略研究

国际海域蕴藏着多种自然资源,对国际海底区域资源勘探开发已成为各国政治、经济、科技、军事角逐的重要赛场。基于中国国际海底区域资源勘查开发的现状,分析了中国在该领域的政策、技术发展现状与国际参与情况,指出了自主创新能力不足、合作平台缺失、人才匮乏及深海权益维护能力短板等挑战。通过回顾挪威、日本在海底资源开发的经验,提出了提升中国在国际海底区域资源勘探开发水平的战略建议。

第三次联合国海洋法会议缘起之国际政治学分析

第三次联合国海洋法会议是20世纪60、70年代世界历史重大转折的集中体现和重要组成部分,其缘起可在国际政治框架内加以解释。大致而言,四个方面的发展推动了这次会议的召开。一是科技进步和人类开发海洋能力的增强,导致出现了世界范围内的海洋资源和环境污染问题,由此产生了从法律层面抑制单边行动和国家间冲突的需要;二是发展中国家以联合斗争的形式,向以“海洋自由”原则为基础的旧海洋法秩序发起冲击,并提出了一系列扩大国家海洋管辖权的主张,希望重塑整个海洋法秩序以赋予这些主张合法性;三是成长为海洋大国的苏联海洋利益立场发生变化,它主动与美国接触,达成了召开国际会议、确立12海里领海和国际海峡自由过境制度的共识;四是深海采矿需求的出现及其引发的国际海底法律地位问题辩论,成为会议召开的直接动因。以上四个方面在影响第三次联合国海洋法会议之核心议程的同时,也决定了会议的发展中国家与海洋大国之间博弈的基本格局和利益“交易”的本质。

Microseismic observations reveal that internal waves intensify seabed methane release

Internal waves transport material and energy from the upper water column to the deep ocean, disturbing seabed sediments and resulting in phenomena such as seabed erosion and changes in topography. On the northern slope of the South China Sea and in many coastal margins worldwide, the zones with internal wave action closely overlap with areas where natural gas hydrates are present. However, due to significant differences in the spatial and temporal scales, understanding the influence of internal waves on methane releases from deep seabeds is challenging. In this study, in situ observations of seabed microseismicity and internal waves are conducted at water depths of 655 meters and 1450 meters in the Pearl River Canyon of the South China Sea. The microseismicity caused by internal waves and seabed methane releases is identified, and a method to establish the correlation between internal waves and seabed methane releases through the use of microseismic recordings is proposed, aiming to obtain direct observational evidence of internal waves intensifying seabed methane releases. The results show that internal waves and seabed methane releases generate significant microseismic signals, indicating the continuous influence of internal waves on the deep seabed of the northern slope of the South China Sea and revealing active methane release phenomena on the seabed. At both long and short time scales, internal waves increase the frequency of seabed methane releases by 4.2 times and 2.4 times, respectively, while also enhancing the intensity of these releases. These changes are influenced by the alterations in seabed flow velocity, pressure, and temperature that are induced by internal wave activities. This study emphasizes that microseismic signals are effective carriers of information for multiscale geological processes on seabeds and suggests that internal waves exacerbate marine geological hazards and contribute to global climate change by intensifying seabed methane releases.

国际社会深海采矿反对之声的演变、根源与应对

伴随深海采矿业迈入关键阶段,各方围绕深海采矿的立场分歧也愈发凸显,形成开发促进派、环保至上派、开发观望派与开发霸权派等不同立场。深海采矿反对之声历经初现、扩散阶段后,开始在国际海底管理局中扩大影响力。因受生态环境认知不足、自身利益分化以及地缘政治意识等因素影响,环保至上派对深海开发持消极态度,呼吁预防性暂停、暂停或禁止深海采矿,并在国际海底管理局内阻扰深海开发议题的推进,影响深海资源开采相关法律法规的有序出台,加剧国际海底战略博弈。国际社会应增进深海科学领域合作研究,发展绿色采矿技术,提升发展中国家参与国际海底事务的能力,促进“深海采矿规章”谈判工作,并构建深海采矿伙伴关系,维护和平稳定、利益共享的国际海底秩序。中国作为深海采矿的支持者,应不断提升深海开发能力,增强在国际海底管理局中的影响力,成为国际海底事务的引领者与贡献者。

《“区域”内矿物资源开发规章》草案试采条款要求下的应对建议

《“区域”内矿物资源开发规章》正在协商中,环境保护与保全已成为各方谈判的焦点。2019年,德国提交给国际海底管理局的一项书面意见中建议增加试采的条款,要求承包者在商业性采矿前进行试采。试采作为勘探阶段向开发阶段的过渡期间需求,对采矿技术、经济性和环境影响评估均起到验证性作用。相较来说,我国在深海采矿进程中紧随西方发达国家之后,但技术成熟性较弱。积极应对试采要求,在试采中验证经济性、技术性和环境影响,跨过环境门槛,成为第一批进入商业深海采矿的承包者对我国至关重要。为此,我国需要大力发展深海采矿关键技术、加强深海环境科学研究、参与环境规则的制定,实现深海矿产资源开发与环境保护的平衡。

国际海底区域勘探开发资格的认定——《联合国海洋法公约》有效控制条款解释及适用

《联合国海洋法公约》国际海底区域勘探开发资格条款中“有效控制”的规定语意模糊,国际海底管理局秉持监管控制解释思路,致开发资格标准过于宽松,纵容了“借壳开发”行为。单一监管控制标准混淆国籍与有效控制概念,强化发达国家国际海底区域开发的支配地位,严重违背了人类共同继承财产原则。有效控制条款解释与适用,应借鉴国际法中对资源的实际管控能力与国内法中对经营管理施加影响的经验,引入经济控制要素,在《联合国海洋法公约》框架下,综合运用条约解释方法。构成要件可参考领土主权中的有效控制,分为排他行使控制权意愿的主观要件与存在监管控制和经济控制的实际联系的客观要件。后者判定应采取实质性审查立场,以监管控制为原则,经济控制为例外。其中,经济控制以实际控制人、利润分配流向及申请主体中主要经营管理机构及人事控制机构成员所在国逐步判断。中国正处于深海立法的探索阶段,应充分利用法律解释工具,为深海治理议题贡献中国智慧。

Bio-Piracy on the High Seas? Benefit Sharing from Marine Genetic Resource Exploitation in Areas beyond National Jurisdiction

Transnational benefit sharing from the exploitation of Marine Genetic Resources’ (MGR’s) in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction (ABNJ) presents a unique problem in international law. Proposals to govern MGR’s in ABNJ include leaving them unregulated, governance under the International Seabed Authority (ISA) or the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) or implementing a new international regime. This paper demonstrates that a hybrid solution for MGR governance?under the ISA which is modeled on the CBD and The Nagoya Protocol (Nagoya), provides the most adroit solution to the problem of equal benefit and access to MGR’s for all States. This solution ensures adequate conservation of MGR’s, meanwhile fostering sustainable exploitation and maintaining equality in access, biodiversity and the sharing of financial and technological benefits amongst the internationalcommunity. Further, examining benefit sharing from bioprospecting under the CBD and Nagoya provides a foundation for a benefit-sharing regime in ABNJ under The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). Examining the CBD, Nagoya and UNCLOS demonstrates how benefits arising from exploitation of MGR’s in the high seas and deep bed should be included as a mandate of the ISA. This methodology is accomplished by focusing on bioprospecting for MGR’s and how the CBD and Nagoya facilitate access to the resource while ensuring that the host State or community benefits from granting access. As the CBD and Nagoya focus on benefit sharing in light of national sovereignty, and UNCLOS regulates in areas beyond national jurisdiction, the ISA is perfectly placed to adopt the principles of the CBD and Nagoya and provide a mechanism to ensure that MGR’s in ABNJ are adequately conserved and the benefits arising from their exploitation equitably shared.

海域二氧化碳地质封存发展的国际经验与启示

美国、欧洲、日本是全球二氧化碳捕集与封存(CCS)的领导者和先行者。美国构建了以美国能源部(DOE)项目资助为引导,以美国地质调查局(USGS)等科研单位为技术支撑,以财税政策激励为动力的发展体系;欧盟和英国通过一系列国际大科学计划,充分发挥各国地学和海洋研究机构的专业技术优势,建立了陆海统筹、要素齐全、体系完备的二氧化碳封存研究网络;日本政府和产业界充分发挥各方力量,构建了“商业+科研+公益”三位一体的技术支撑体系。我国近海CCS潜力巨大,但前期调查研究薄弱,资源评价结果无法满足实际需求。建议充分借鉴国际先进经验,加快评价我国海底CCS地质条件和封存潜力,启动海底CCS国家示范工程,支持和促进CCS技术创新,开展海底CCS产业和绿色金融政策研究。

国际海底矿权转让的国际立法困境与国内法应对

1982年《联合国海洋法公约》对国际海底矿权转让的程序和条件采用“形式审查”方式,忽略了对矿权转让资格审查、矿权评估等实质内容的规定。这使得实践中相当数量的国际海底矿权被转给了实际上不具备相关资格的受让者。由于自身的局限性,在国际法层面构建一套适用于所有国家的国际海底矿权转让制度比较困难。在国际海底矿权转让中,相关主权国家通过国内立法的方式履行担保国义务,从而为国内法规制国际海底矿权转让提供合适的手段。担保国应当对国际海底矿权转让相关的“实质审查”内容予以规范,与《联合国海洋法公约》规定的国际海底矿权转让“形式审查”内容相呼应。针对我国的国内立法,我国需重点完善国际海底矿权转让主体准入制度以及矿权评估制度。

中国参与国际海底区域海洋环境治理研究

国际海底区域海洋环境治理是全球海洋生态环境治理的重要一环,不仅关系到国际海底区域资源开发的进程,更关系到人类的生存发展。中国是海洋大国,也是全球最大的发展中国家,对国际海底区域海洋环境治理负有义不容辞的责任与义务,更具有不可替代的重要作用。在梳理国际海底区域资源现状的基础上,明确中国参与国际海底区域海洋环境治理的义务,并分析中国参与国际海底区域海洋环境治理需进一步深入探讨的方面:国际层面,国际海底区域海洋环境担保国责任制度尚待完善,风险预防原则定义尚未确定,国际海底区域海洋环境保护标准尚未明确;国内层面,我国海洋环境保护法律责任制度有待补充,环境影响评价制度有待完善。提出国际方面完善国际海底区域海洋环境治理担保国责任制度、国际海底区域海洋环境风险预防原则和国际海底区域环境保护标准;国内方面完善我国海洋环境保护法律责任制度,实行环境影响评价制度等路径建议。

国际海底区域资源开发争端解决的机制创新——基于“审查机制”的规范分析

随着陆地能源消耗日益增加,海底矿产勘探开发技术快速发展,现有关于“区域”内活动的争端解决机制业已无法满足现实的需要,多元化、多层次的“区域”内活动纠纷对争端解决机制的优化提出了新的要求。在此背景下,国际海底管理局曾在《“区域”内矿产资源开发规章草案》提出“审查机制”作为《联合国海洋法公约》“区域”内争端解决机制的补充方案,但在新近文本中却表示不再考虑该项制度。通过对“审查机制”产生、弃用之原因以及其运行机制的考察,可以一定程度认识“区域”争端解决活动创新的现实需要,也可以发掘优化现行“区域”内活动争端解决机制的能动范围。“区域”内争端解决制度的优化创新不仅有利于保障中国承包者的切身权益,同时也是中国在国际海洋问题上积极发声的有效切入。“审查机制”因逾越《联合国海洋法公约》最终被国际海底管理局所放弃。中国应当充分析取其内在经验,提炼中国利益和中国关切,在“区域”内矿产资源开发的规则体系建设中回应《联合国海洋法公约》的制度精神,在“区域”内争端解决机制创新中于规范之内寻求充分能动。

《联合国海洋法公约》第十一部分对国家责任规则的 发展及中国因应

《联合国海洋法公约》第十一部分确立了人类共同继承财产原则,表明国家责任规则的权利基础发生了变迁。以此为逻辑起点,从责任主体、责任构成及责任追偿三个方面探求《联合国海洋法公约》第十一部分对国家责任规则的发展。在责任主体方面,《联合国海洋法公约》第十一部分对国家的责任主体资格作出了限制,并在规定中引入承包者、担保国及国际海底管理局等作为责任的主体,这是因为权利主体的变动;在责任构成方面,《联合国海洋法公约》第十一部分未以行为或后果进行归责,而是以行为和后果进行归责,原因在于责任功能定位的差异;在责任追偿方面,《联合国海洋法公约》第十一部分将其限定为多边机制,而非传统国家责任的双边机制,其依据是人类共同继承财产原则超越了以主权国家为基本单元的传统国际法结构。《联合国海洋法公约》第十一部分的规定反映了国家责任规则的最新发展,应结合当前中国国情,主张审慎的责任构成标准,倡导拓展责任主体的范畴,支持国际海底区域的法治化,从而持续推进国家责任规则的发展和变革。

海底治理的特征与世界政治新理念

全球海底治理在建构过程中形成了三个典型特征。首先,以国际海底管理局为核心的相对有效治理;其次,发展中国家在治理机制建设中发挥了主导地位;最后,各方博弈形成的平行开发制,即国际海底管理局与民族国家同时为企业的开发活动提供授权。海底治理的进程揭示了世界政治的三个关键性转变,一是权力政治在新的时代相对弱化,二是世界政治中的伦理性色彩更加凸显,三是世界政治正展现出超越民族国家的人类共生性特征。在这个新旧杂陈的时代,海洋命运共同体的理念暗合世界政治的新特征,有望为海底治理的推进提供助力。

破局抑或缓冲:国际海底区域“两年期规则”的国际法走向

2021年6月,瑙鲁向国际海底管理局(以下简称“海管局”)表示将申请开发工作计划,要求理事会在两年之内完成《“区域”内矿产资源开发规章》(以下简称“《开发规章》”)的制定,但《开发规章》仍未按期出台,这意味着规章未通过的情况下,承包者亦可依法提出开发申请。“两年期规则”的出现与海管局的决策机制及《联合国海洋法公约》(以下简称“《公约》”)的立法实践息息相关。“两年期规则”起到“破局”和“缓冲”两方面的作用:“破局”旨在敦促理事会尽快弥合分歧,以渐进式的方法对规章突破关键问题,必要时可提请国际海洋法法庭海底争端分庭的咨询程序;“缓冲”意味着理事会的职权出现新的转向,现阶段应明确理事会的推迟审议的依据和临时批准效力,以及明晰理事会与法技委之间的职能界限。“缓冲”要求理事会在《公约》框架内修正既有的工作方式,以应对可能出现的临时申请,理事会尽快“破局”拟订《开发规章》才是应对“两年期规则”讨论的应有之义。

浅论国际海底区域检查、遵守和执行机制的构建

检查、遵守和执行问题是《“区域”内矿产资源开发规章》谈判中各方高度关注的重点问题。《联合国海洋法公约》对“区域”内资源勘探开发“检查、遵守和执行”的机制框架、国际海底管理局各机构的相关职能分工以及检查员的权力和职能等进行了原则性规定。随着《“区域”内矿产资源开发规章》谈判的深入,各方对检查、遵守和执行问题仍存在诸多分歧,特别是在机制框架上提出了不同的构建方案。“区域”检查、遵守和执行机制应按照《联合国海洋法公约》既有的法律框架来建立和执行,应以渐进原则和成本效益原则为指导,坚持法律和技术委员会在机制框架中居于重要地位,坚持检查权的实施应严格限定于《联合国海洋法公约》的授权范围。