Brain GABA and glutamate levels in workers of two ant species （Hymenoptera： Formicidae）： Interspecific differences and effects of queen presence/absence

Presence of amino acid neurotransmitters gamma-aminobutyric acid （GABA） and glutamate （Glu） in ant brains was reported in very few studies. To learn more about factors influencing GABA and Glu levels in ant brains, we applied high-performance liquid chromatography to measure levels of these compounds in single brains of workers of 2 ant species, Myrmica ruginodis （subfamily Myrmicinae） and Formica polyctena （subfamily Formicinae） taken from queenright/queenless colony fragments and tested in dyadic aggression tests consisting of an encounter with a nestrnate, an alien conspecific or a small cricket. Brain glutamate levels were higher than those of GABA in both tested species. Brain GABA levels （in μmol/brain） and GABA ： Glu ratio were higher in M. ruginodis （a submissive species） than in E polyctena （a dominant, aggressive species） in spite of smaller brain weight of M. ruginodis. Brain glutamate levels （in μmol/brain） did not differ between the tested species, which implies that glutamate concentration （in μmol/mg of brain tissue） was higher in M. ruginodis. Queen absence was associated with increased worker brain GABA levels in E polyctena, but not in M. ruginodis. No significant effects of opponent type were discovered. As GABA agonists enhance friendly social behavior in rodents, we hypothesize that elevated brain GABA levels of orphaned workers of F.polyctena facilitate the adoption of a new queen. This is the first report providing information on GABA and glutamate levels in single ant brains and documenting the effects of queen presence/absence on brain levels of amino acid neurotransmitters in workers of social Hymenoptera.

Vertebrae of Modern Viperids of the Far East:Comparative Characterisation for the Identification of Their Fossil Remains

Fossil remains of snakes in Quaternary localities are most often represented by vertebrae.Therefore,it is necessary to carry out a comparative study of the vertebrae of modern species in the areas of interest to identify fossil materials.In this study,we examined 52 specimens of viperids(7 specimens of Gloydius intermedius,12 specimens of Gloydius ussuriensis,6 specimens of Gloydius halys,4 specimens of Vipera sakhalinensis,16 specimens of Vipera berus,and 7 specimens of Vipera renardi).The features of the trunk,cervical,cloacal and caudal vertebrae of 6 species from 2 genera are described.The vertebrae of the Viperidae are highly similar across species,with variation along the vertebral column.Nevertheless,they can be distinguished if their exact position within the vertebral column is known.The most important diagnostic feature is the shape of the hypapophysis,especially when identifying the cervical vertebrae.Among other morphological features,it is important to consider the shape of the ventral surface of the vertebra,prezygapophyseal and parapophyseal processes,neurapophysis,and zygapophysis.For the epistropheus,the position of the anterior edge of the neurapophysis in relation to the anterior edge of the neural arch is also significant.The caudal vertebrae bear the greatest resemblance.There is a significant overlap between the ratios of different measurements(indices)in different species.However,if an index is out of the overlapping zone,it is possible to identify a vertebra more or less accurately,especially when considering it in conjunction with other indices and morphological characteristics.

Comparative Osteology of Two Far Eastern Species of Ratsnakes(Serpentes:Colubridae), Elaphe dione(Pallas, 1773) and E. schrenckii(Strauch, 1873), for the Purpose of Palaeontological Studies

The taxonomic identification of Quaternary remains requires a comparison of fossil bones with the skeletons of existing taxa based on the morphological criteria. However, the osteology of most modern snake species has not yet been studied. This work is aimed at finding differences in the bone morphology of Amur and Dione’s ratsnakes and the criteria for their identification. The variety of bone morphology depends on several parameters. First, these are species differences which determine the systematic position of the animal. Second, it is individual varia bility.Third, these are progressive changes in the vertebrae morphology along the vertebral column from the first vertebra to the last. Fourth, it is age-related variability. 20 skeletonised specimens: 12 specimens of Elaphe dione and 8 specimens of Elaphe schrenckii were used to define diagnostic osteological characters. The bones of the two studied species are very similar and their variability overlaps. However, differences and identification criteria were found for 13 skull bones:nasal, frontal, parietal, supraoccipital, maxilla, quadrate,palatine, pterygoid, ectopterygoid, basiparasphenoid,basioccipital, dentary and the compound bone. In addition, the variability and differences of the cervical,trunk, cloacal, and caudal vertebrae were examined.

Community Dynamics of Seed Rain in Mixed Evergreen Broad-leaved and Deciduous Forests in a Subtropical Mountain of Central China

Seed dispersal is a key process within community dynamics. The spatial and temporal variations of seed dispersal and the interspecific differences are crucial for understanding species coexistence and community dynamics. This might also hold for the mixed evergreen broadleaved and deciduous forests in the mountains of subtropical China, but until now little existing knowledge is available for this question. In 2001, we chose to monitor the seed rain process of our mixed evergreen broad-leaved and deciduous forest communities in Mount Dalaoling National Forest Park, Yichang, Hubei Province, China. The preliminary analyses show obvious variations in seed rain density, species compositions and timing of seed rain among four communities. The average seed rain densities of the four communities are 2.43 ± 5.15, 54.13 ±182.75, 10.05 ±19.30 and 24.91 ± 58.86 inds/m^2, respectively; about one tenth the values in other studies in subtropical forests of China. in each community, the seed production is dominated by a limited number of species, and the contributions from the others are generally minor. Fecundity of evergreen broadleaved tree species is weaker than deciduous species. The seed rain of four communities begins earlier than September, and stops before December, peaking from early September to late October. The beginning date, ending date and peak times of seed rain are extensively varied among the species, indicating different types of dispersal strategies. According to the existing data, the timing of seed rain is not determined by the climate conditions in the same period, while the density of seed rain may be affected by the disturbances of weather variations at a finer temporal resolution.

Significance of adverse outcome pathways in biomarker-based environmental risk assessment in aquatic organisms

In environmental risk assessments（ERA）, biomarkers have been widely used as an early warning signal of environmental contamination. However, biomarker responses have limitation due to its low relevance to adverse outcomes（e.g., fluctuations in community structure, decreases in population size, and other similar ecobiologically relevant indicators of community structure and function）. To mitigate these limitations, the concept of adverse outcome pathways（AOPs） was developed. An AOP is an analytical, sequentially progressive pathway that links a molecular initiating event（MIE） to an adverse outcome. Recently, AOPs have been recognized as a potential informational tool by which the implications of molecular biomarkers in ERA can be better understood. To demonstrate the utility of AOPs in biomarker-based ERA, here we discuss a series of three different biological repercussions caused by exposure to benzo（a）pyrene（Ba P）, silver nanoparticles（Ag NPs）, and selenium（Se）. Using mainly aquatic invertebrates and selected vertebrates as model species, we focus on the development of the AOP concept. Aquatic organisms are suitable bioindicator species whose entire lifespans can be observed over a short period; moreover, these species can be studied on the molecular and population levels.Also, interspecific differences between aquatic organisms are important to consider in an AOP framework, since these differences are an integral part of the natural environment.The development of an environmental pollutant-mediated AOP may enable a better understanding of the effects of environmental pollutants in different scenarios in the diverse community of an ecosystem.