Review on laser directed energy deposited aluminum alloys

Lightweight aluminum(Al)alloys have been widely used in frontier fields like aerospace and automotive industries,which attracts great interest in additive manufacturing(AM)to process high-value Al parts.As a mainstream AM technique,laser-directed energy deposition(LDED)shows good scalability to meet the requirements for large-format component manufacturing and repair.However,LDED Al alloys are highly challenging due to their inherent poor printability(e.g.low laser absorption,high oxidation sensitivity and cracking tendency).To further promote the development of LDED high-performance Al alloys,this review offers a deep understanding of the challenges and strategies to improve printability in LDED Al alloys.The porosity,cracking,distortion,inclusions,element evaporation and resultant inferior mechanical properties(worse than laser powder bed fusion)are the key challenges in LDED Al alloys.Processing parameter optimizations,in-situ alloy design,reinforcing particle addition and field assistance are the efficient approaches to improving the printability and performance of LDED Al alloys.The underlying correlations between processes,alloy innovation,characteristic microstructures,and achievable performances in LDED Al alloys are discussed.The benchmark mechanical properties and primary strengthening mechanism of LDED Al alloys are summarized.This review aims to provide a critical and in-depth evaluation of current progress in LDED Al alloys.Future opportunities and perspectives in LDED high-performance Al alloys are also outlined.

Memristive feature and mechanism induced by laser-doping in defect-free 2D semiconductor materials

Memristors as non-volatile memory devices have gained numerous attentions owing to their advantages in storage,in-memory computing, synaptic applications, etc. In recent years, two-dimensional(2D) materials with moderate defects have been discovered to exist memristive feature. However, it is very difficult to obtain moderate defect degree in 2D materials, and studied on modulation means and mechanism becomes urgent and essential. In this work, we realized memristive feature with a bipolar switching and a configurable on/off ratio in a two-terminal MoS_(2) device(on/off ratio ~100), for the first time, from absent to present using laser-modulation to few-layer defect-free MoS_(2)(about 10 layers), and its retention time in both high resistance state and low resistance state can reach 2×10^(4) s. The mechanism of the laser-induced memristive feature has been cleared by dynamic Monte Carlo simulations and first-principles calculations. Furthermore, we verified the universality of the laser-modulation by investigating other 2D materials of TMDs. Our work will open a route to modulate and optimize the performance of 2D semiconductor memristive devices.

Laser direct writing of Ga_(2)O_(3)/liquid metal-based flexible humidity sensors

Flexible and wearable humidity sensors play a vital role in daily point-of-care diagnosis and noncontact human-machine interactions.However,achieving a facile and high-speed fabrication approach to realizing flexible humidity sensors remains a challenge.In this work,a wearable capacitive-type Ga_(2)O_(3)/liquid metal-based humidity sensor is demonstrated by a one-step laser direct writing technique.Owing to the photothermal effect of laser,the Ga_(2)O_(3)-wrapped liquid metal particles can be selectively sintered and converted from insulative to conductive traces with a resistivity of 0.19Ω·cm,while the untreated regions serve as active sensing layers in response to moisture changes.Under 95%relative humidity,the humidity sensor displays a highly stable performance along with rapid response and recover time.Utilizing these superior properties,the Ga_(2)O_(3)/liquid metal-based humidity sensor is able to monitor human respiration rate,as well as skin moisture of the palm under different physiological states for healthcare monitoring.

Formation mechanism of inherent spatial heterogeneity of microstructure and mechanical properties of NiTi SMA prepared by laser directed energy deposition

Ni51Ti49 at.%bulk was additively manufactured by laser-directed energy deposition(DED)to reveal the microstructure evolution,phase distribution,and mechanical properties.It is found that the localized remelting,reheating,and heat accumulation during DED leads to the spatial heterogeneous distribution of columnar crystal and equiaxed crystal,a gradient distribution of Ni4Ti3 precipitates along the building direction,and preferential formation of Ni4Ti3 precipitates in the columnar zone.The austenite transformation finish temperature(Af)varies from-12.65℃(Z=33 mm)to 60.35℃(Z=10 mm),corresponding to tensile yield strength(σ0.2)changed from 120±30 MPa to 570±20 MPa,and functional properties changed from shape memory effect to superelasticity at room temperature.The sample in the Z=20.4 mm height has the best plasticity of 9.6%and the best recoverable strain of 4.2%.This work provided insights and guidelines for the spatial characterization of DEDed NiTi.

Femtosecond laser direct writing of functional stimulus-responsive structures and applications

Diverse natural organisms possess stimulus-responsive structures to adapt to the surrounding environment.Inspired by nature,researchers have developed various smart stimulus-responsive structures with adjustable properties and functions to address the demands of ever-changing application environments that are becoming more intricate.Among many fabrication methods for stimulus-responsive structures,femtosecond laser direct writing(FsLDW)has received increasing attention because of its high precision,simplicity,true three-dimensional machining ability,and wide applicability to almost all materials.This paper systematically outlines state-of-the-art research on stimulus-responsive structures prepared by FsLDW.Based on the introduction of femtosecond laser-matter interaction and mainstream FsLDW-based manufacturing strategies,different stimulating factors that can trigger structural responses of prepared intelligent structures,such as magnetic field,light,temperature,pH,and humidity,are emphatically summarized.Various applications of functional structures with stimuli-responsive dynamic behaviors fabricated by FsLDW,as well as the present obstacles and forthcoming development opportunities,are discussed.

A direct laser-synthesized magnetic metamaterial for low-frequency wideband passive microwave absorption

Microwave absorption in radar stealth technology is faced with challenges in terms of its effectiveness in low-frequency regions.Herein,we report a new laser-based method for producing an ultrawideband metamaterial-based microwave absorber with a highly uniform sheet resistance and negative magnetic permeability at resonant frequencies,which results in a wide bandwidth in the L-to S-band.Control of the electrical sheet resistance uniformity has been achieved with less than 5%deviation at 400Ωsq^(-1)and 6%deviation at 120Ωsq^(-1),resulting in a microwave absorption coefficient between 97.2%and 97.7%within a1.56–18.3 GHz bandwidth for incident angles of 0°–40°,and there is no need for providing energy or an electrical power source during the operation.Porous N-and S-doped turbostratic graphene 2D patterns with embedded magnetic nanoparticles were produced simultaneously on a polyethylene terephthalate substrate via laser direct writing.The proposed low-frequency,wideband,wide-incident-angle,and high-electromagnetic-absorption microwave absorber can potentially be used in aviation,electromagnetic interference(EMI)suppression,and 5G applications.

Periodic transparent nanowires in ITO film fabricated via femtosecond laser direct writing

This paper reports the fabrication of regular large-area laser-induced periodic surface structures(LIPSSs)in indium tin oxide(ITO)films via femtosecond laser direct writing focused by a cylindrical lens.The regular LIPSSs exhibited good properties as nanowires,with a resistivity almost equal to that of the initial ITO film.By changing the laser fluence,the nanowire resistances could be tuned from 15 to 73 kΩ/mm with a consistency of±10%.Furthermore,the average transmittance of the ITO films with regular LIPSSs in the range of 1200-2000 nm was improved from 21%to 60%.The regular LIPSS is promising for transparent electrodes of nano-optoelectronic devices-particularly in the near-infrared band.

High-speed directly modulated distributed feedback laser based on detuned loading and photon-photon resonance effect

A monolithic integrated two-section distributed feedback(TS-DFB)semiconductor laser for high-speed direct modulation is proposed and analyzed theoretically.The grating structure of the TS-DFB laser is designed by the reconstructionequivalent-chirp(REC)technique,which can reduce the manufacturing cost and difficulty,and achieve high wavelength controlling accuracy.The detuned loading effect and the photon-photon resonance(PPR)effect are utilized to enhance the modulation bandwidth of the TS-DFB laser,exceeding 37 GHz,while that of the conventional one-section DFB laser is only 16 GHz.When the bit rate of the non-return-to-zero(NRZ)signal reaches 55 Gb/s,a clear eye diagram with large opening can still be obtained.These results show that the proposed method can enhance the modulation bandwidth of DFB laser significantly.

NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS OF TEMPERATURE FIELD IN DIRECT METAL LASER SINTERING PROCESS

A mathematical model is developed for simulating the heat transferring behavior in a direct metal laser sintering process. The model considers the thermal phenomena involved in the process, including conduction, radiation, and convection. A formula for the calculation of the heat conductivity of a sintering system containing solid phase, liquid phase, and gas phase is given. Due to the continuous movement of the laser beam, a local coordinate system centered on the laser beam is used to simplify the analytical calculation. Assuming that it is approximately a Gaussian laser beam, the heat conduction equation is resolved based on the assumption of the thermal insulating boundary conditions and the fixed thermal physical parameters. The FORTRAN language is employed to compile the program to simulate the temperature field in the direct copper powder sintering process. It shows a good agreement with the preliminary experimental results.[KH3/4D]

Fusion: It’s Time to Color outside the Lines

There has been some good news, and some bad news in the controlled fusion community recently. The good news is that the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) has recently produced a burning plasma. It succeeded on several of its shots where ~1.5 - 2 megajoules from its laser (National Ignition Facility, or NIF) has generated ~1.3 - 3 megajoules of fusion products. The highest ratio of fusion energy to laser energy it achieved, defined as its Q, was 1.5 at the time of this writing. While LLNL is sponsored by nuclear stockpile stewardship, this author sees a likely path from their result to fusion for energy for the world, a path using a very different laser and a very different target configuration. The bad news is that the International Tokamak Experimental Reactor (ITER) has continued to stumble on more and more delays and cost overruns, as its capital cost has mushroomed from ~$5 billion to ~ $25 B. This paper argues that the American fusion effort, for energy for the civilian economy, should switch its emphasis not only from magnetic fusion to inertial fusion but should also take much more seriously fusion breeding. Over the next few decades, the world might well be setting up more and more thermal nuclear reactors, and these might need fuel which only fusion breeders can supply. In other words, fusion should begin to color outside the lines.

Underwater Laser Welding/Cladding for High-performance Repair of Marine Metal Materials:A Review

With the rapid developments of marine resource exploitation,mounts of marine engineering equipment are settled on the ocean.When it is not possible to move the damaged equipment into a dry dock,welding operations must be performed in underwater environments.The underwater laser welding/cladding technique is a promising and advanced technique which could be widely applied to the maintenance of the damaged equipment.The present review paper aims to present a critical analysis and engineering overview of the underwater laser welding/cladding technique.First,we elaborated recent advances and key issues of drainage nozzles all over the world.Next,we presented the underwater laser processing and microstructural-mechanical behavior of repaired marine materials.Then,the newly developed powder-feeding based and wire-feeding based underwater laser direct metal deposition techniques were reviewed.The differences between the convection,conduction,and the metallurgical kinetics in the melt pools during underwater laser direct metal deposition and in-air laser direct metal deposition were illustrated.After that,several challenges that need to be overcame to achieve the full potential of the underwater laser welding/cladding technique are proposed.Finally,suggestions for future directions to aid the development of underwater laser welding/cladding technology and underwater metallurgical theory are provided.The present review will not only enrich the knowledge in the underwater repair technology,but also provide important guidance for the potential applications of the technology on the marine engineering.

Laser-Assisted Reduction of Highly Conductive Circuits Based on Copper Nitrate for Flexible Printed Sensors

Stretchable electronic sensing devices are defining the path toward wearable electronics. High-performance flexible strain sensors attached on clothing or human skin are required for potential applications in the entertainment,health monitoring, and medical care sectors. In this work,conducting copper electrodes were fabricated onpolydimethylsiloxane as sensitive stretchable microsensors by integrating laser direct writing and transfer printing approaches. The copper electrode was reduced from copper salt using laser writing rather than the general approach of printing with pre-synthesized copper or copper oxide nanoparticles. An electrical resistivity of 96 l X cm was achieved on 40-lm-thick Cu electrodes on flexible substrates. The motion sensing functionality successfully demonstrated a high sensitivity and mechanical robustness.This in situ fabrication method leads to a path toward electronic devices on flexible substrates.

Microstructure and mechanical property of additively manufactured NiTi alloys:A comparison between selective laser melting and directed energy deposition

NiTi shape memory alloy(SMA)with nominal composition of Ni 50.8 at%and Ti 49.2 at%was additively manufactured(AM)by selective laser melting(SLM)and laser directed energy deposition(DED)for a comparison study,with emphasis on its phase composition,microstructure,mechanical property and deformation mechanism.The results show that the yield strength and ductility obtained by SLM are 100 MPa and 8%,respectively,which are remarkably different from DED result with 700 MPa and 2%.The load path of SLM sample presents shape memory effect,corresponding to martensite phase detected by XRD;while the load path of DED presents pseudo-elasticity with austenite phase.In SLM sample,fine grain and hole provide a uniform deformation during tensile test,resulting in a better elongation.Furthermore,the nonequilibrium solidification was studied by a temperature field simulation to understand the difference of the two 3D printing methods.Both temperature gradient G and growth rate R determine the microstructure and phase in the SLM sample and DED sample,which leads to similar grain morphologies because of similar G/R.While higher G×R of SLM leads to a finer grain size in SLM sample,providing enough driving force for martensite transition and subsequently changing texture compared to DED sample.

Femtosecond-laser direct writing 3D micro/nano-lithography using VIS-light oscillator

Here we report a femtosecond laser direct writing(a precise 3D printing also known as two-photon polymerization lithography) of hybrid organic-inorganic SZ2080^(TM)pre-polymer without using any photo-initiator and applying ~100 fs oscillator operating at 517 nm wavelength and 76 MHz repetition rate. The proof of concept was experimentally demonstrated and benchmarking 3D woodpile nanostructures, micro-scaffolds, free-form micro-object “Benchy” and bulk micro-cubes are successfully produced. The essential novelty underlies the fact that non-amplified laser systems delivering just 40-500 p J individual pulses are sufficient for inducing localized cross-linking reactions within hundreds of nanometers in cross sections. And it is opposed to the prejudice that higher pulse energies and lower repetition rates of amplified lasers are necessary for structuring non-photosensitized polymers. The experimental work is of high importance for fundamental understanding of laser enabled nanoscale 3D additive manufacturing and widens technology’ s field of applications where the avoidance of photo-initiator is preferable or is even a necessity, such as micro-optics, nano-photonics, and biomedicine.

fFabrication of three-dimensional proteinaceous micro- and nano-structures by femtosecond laser cross-linking

Proteins are a class of biomaterials having a vast array of functions, including the catalysis of metabolic reactions, DNA replication, stimuli response and transportation of molecules. Recent progress in laser-based fabrication technologies has enabled the formation of three-dimensional （3D） proteinaceous micro- and nano-structures by femtosecond laser cross-linking, which has expanded the possible applications of proteins. This article reviews the current knowledge andrecent advancements in the femtosecond laser cross-linking of proteins. An overview of previous studies related to fabri-cation using a variety of proteins and detailed discussions of the associated mechanisms are provided. In addition, ad-vances and applications utilizing specific protein functions are introduced. This review thus provides a valuable summaryof the 3D micro- and nano-fabrication of proteins for biological and medical applications.

Laser Multi-layer Cladding Experiment on the DD3 Single Crystal Using FGH95 Powder:Investigation on the Microstructure of Single Crystal Cladding Layer

Laser multi\|layer cladding experiments were performed on the substrate of DD3 single crystal with FGH95 powder as cladding material.The solidification microstructure in the sample was investigated.It was found that the solidification microstructure was greatly influenced by the crystallography orientation of the substrate and the local solidification conditions.When the angle between the preferred orientation of the single crystal and the direction of heat flow in the cladding layer is less than 30°,single crystal cladding layers were acquired.Otherwise the crystallography orientation of the cladding layer will deviate from the orientation of the substrate and the microstructure with polycrystalline appears.Meanwhile,even when the experiments were performed on the same preferred crystal surface,the solidification microstructures will be different distinctly resulting from the variation of the local solidification conditions.The secondary arms were degenerated and the primary arm spacing was about 10\|20μm.Further investigation shows that the phases of the cladding layer are mainly made up ofγ,γ′,the flower\|likeγ/γ′eutectic and carbide.The morphology ofγ′was cubical and the size is less than 0.1μm.

RESEARCH ON LASER DIRECT DEPOSITION PROCESS OF Ti-6Al-4V ALLOY

Laser direct deposition （LDD） of metallic components is an advanced technology of combining CAD/CAM （computer aided design/computer aided manufacturing）, high power laser, and rapid prototyping. This technology uses laser beam to melt the powders fed coaxiaUy into the molten pool by the laser beam to fabricate fuUy dense metallic components. The present article mainly studies the LDD of Ti-6Al-4V alloy, which can be used to fabricate aircraft components. The mechanical properties of the Ti-6Al-4V alloy, fabricated by LDD, are obtained using the tension test, and the oxygen content of used powders and deposited specimens are measured. In the present article, it can be seen that the mechanical properties obtained using this method are higher than the ones obtained by casting, and equal to those got by wrought anneal. One aircraft part has been made using the LDD process. Because of this aircraft part, with sophisticated shape, the effect of the laser scanning track on the internal soundness of the deposited part was discussed.

Non-Maxwellian electron distributions resulting from direct laser acceleration in near-critical plasmas

The irradiation of few-nm-thick targets by a finite-contrast high-intensity short-pulse laser results in a strong pre-expansion of these targets at the arrival time of the main pulse.The targets decompress to near and lower than critical densities with plasmas extending over few micrometers,i.e.multiple wavelengths.The interaction of the main pulse with such a highly localized but inhomogeneous target leads to the generation of a short channel and further self-focusing of the laser beam.Experiments at the Glass Hybrid OPCPA Scaled Test-bed(GHOST)laser system at University of Texas,Austin using such targets measured non-Maxwellian,peaked electron distribution with large bunch charge and high electron density in the laser propagation direction.These results are reproduced in 2D PIC simulations using the EPOCH code,identifying direct laser acceleration(DLA)[1]as the responsible mechanism.This is the first time that DLA has been observed to produce peaked spectra as opposed to broad,Maxwellian spectra observed in earlier experiments[2].This high-density electrons have potential applications as injector beams for a further wakefield acceleration stage as well as for pump-probe applications.

Laser direct writing derived robust carbon nitride films with efficient photon-to-electron conversion for multifunctional photoelectrical applications

Carbon nitride,an emerging polymeric semiconductor,has attracted attention in research ranging from photocatalysis to photodetection due to its favorable visible light response and high physicochemical stability.For its practical device application,the fabrication of high-quality carbon nitride films on substrates is essential.However,conventional methodologies to achieve high polymerization of carbon nitride are often accompanied by its decomposition,significantly compromising the film quality.Herein,we report an ultrafast fabrication of carbon nitride film by laser direct writing(LDW).The instantaneous high temperature and pressure during LDW can efficiently boost the polymerization of carbon nitride and suppress its decomposition,resulting in high-quality carbon nitride film with excellent mechanical stability with the substrate.Due to the efficient photon-to-electron conversion,it exhibits an outstanding photoelectrochemical water splitting and optoelectronic detection capability,even under strong acid/alkaline conditions.This study thus offers a facile and efficient LDW strategy for the rapid fabrication of carbon nitride film photoelectrodes,demonstrating its great feasibility in multifunctional photoelectrical applications,including but not limited to photoelectrochemical water splitting and optoelectronic detection.

Bioinspired micro/nanostructured surfaces prepared by femtosecond laser direct writing for multi-functional applications

manufacturing of biomimetic micro/nanostructures due to its specific advantages including high precision,simplicity,and compatibility for diverse materials in comparison with other methods(e.g.ion etching,sol-gel process,chemical vapor deposition,template method,and self-assembly).These biomimetic micro/nanostructured surfaces are of significant interest for academic and industrial research due to their wide range of potential applications,including self-cleaning surfaces,oil-water separation,and fog collection.This review presents the inherent relationship between natural organisms,fabrication methods,micro/nanostructures and their potential applications.Thereafter,we throw a list of current fabrication strategies so as to highlight the advantages of FLDW in manufacturing bioinspired microstructured surfaces.Subsequently,we summarize a variety of typical bioinspired designs(e.g.lotus leaf,pitcher plant,rice leaf,butterfly wings,etc)for diverse multifunctional micro/nanostructures through extreme femtosecond laser processing technology.Based on the principle of interfacial chemistry and geometrical optics,we discuss the potential applications of these functional micro/nanostructures and assess the underlying challenges and opportunities in the extreme fabrication of bioinspired micro/nanostructures by FLDW.This review concludes with a follow up and an outlook of femtosecond laser processing in biomimetic domains.