Estimation of lead and zinc emissions from mineral exploitation based on characteristics of lead/zinc deposits in China

Nonferrous mining activities are some of the largest sources of heavy metals emissions into the environment and China is one of the largest producers and consumers of lead and zinc in the world.The cumulative productions and emissions of lead and zinc from mining-related activities in China were estimated.Up to 2007,the cumulative productions of lead and zinc in China were estimated to be about 6.69 and 12.59 Mt,respectively;and about 1.62 Mt lead and 3.32 Mt zinc emitted into the ambient environment during the mining,processing and smelting activities,representing 24.39% and 26.36% cumulative production,respectively.Among these three types of mining-related activities,mineral processing contributes the most to the total emission of 50.67% lead and 45.51% zinc.

Isotopic Compositions of Sulfur in the Jinshachang Lead–Zinc Deposit, Yunnan, China, and its Implication on the Formation of Sulfur-Bearing Minerals

The Jinshachang lead-zinc deposit is mainly hosted in the Upper Neoproterozoic carbonate rocks of the Dengying Group and located in the Sichuan-Yunnan-Guizhou （SYG） Pb-Zn-Ag multi- metal mineralization area in China. Sulfides minerals including sphalerite, galena and pyrite postdate or coprecipitate with gangue mainly consisting of fluorite, quartz, and barite, making this deposit distinct from most lead-zinc deposits in the SYG. This deposit is controlled by tectonic structures, and most mineralization is located along or near faults zones. Emeishan basalts near the ore district might have contributed to the formation of orebodies. The j34S values of sphalerite, galena, pyrite and barite were estimated to be 3.6‰-13.4‰, 3.7‰-9.0‰, -6.4‰ to 29.2‰ and 32.1‰34.7‰, respectively. In view of the similar δ34S values of barite and sulfates being from the Cambrian strata, the sulfur of barite was likely derived from the Cambrian strata. The homogenization temperatures （T ≈ 134--383℃） of fluid inclusions were not suitable for reducing bacteria, therefore, the bacterial sulfate reduction could not have been an efficient path to generate reduced sulfur in this district. Although thermochemical sulfate reduction process had contributed to the production of reduced sulfur, it was not the main mechanism. Considering other aspects, it can be suggested that sulfur of sulfides should have been derived from magmatic activities. The δ34S values of sphalerite were found to be higher than those of coexisting galena. The equilibrium temperatures calculated by using the sulfur isotopic composition of mineral pairs matched well with the homogenization temperature of fluid inclusions, suggesting that the sulfur isotopic composition in ore-forming fluids had reached a partial equilibrium.

An experimental study on metal precipitation driven by fluid mixing: implications for genesis of carbonate-hosted lead–zinc ore deposits

A type of carbonate-hosted lead–zinc(Pb–Zn)ore deposits, known as Mississippi Valley Type(MVT)deposits, constitutes an important category of lead–zinc ore deposits. Previous studies proposed a fluid-mixing model to account for metal precipitation mechanism of the MVT ore deposits, in which fluids with metal-chloride complexes happen to mix with fluids with reduced sulfur, producing metal sulfide deposition. In this hypothesis, however, the detailed chemical kinetic process of mixing reactions, and especially the controlling factors on the metal precipitation are not yet clearly stated. In this paper, a series of mixing experiments under ambient temperature and pressure conditions were conducted to simulate the fluid mixing process, by titrating the metal-chloride solutions, doping withor without dolomite, and using NaHS solution. Experimental results, combined with the thermodynamic calculations, suggest that H_2S, rather than HS^-or S^(2-),dominated the reactions of Pb and/or Zn precipitation during the fluid mixing process, in which metal precipitation was influenced by the stability of metal complexes and the pH. Given the constant concentrations of metal and total S in fluids, the pH was a primary factor controlling the Pb and/or Zn metal precipitation. This is because neutralizing or neutralized processes for the ore-forming fluids can cause instabilities of Pb and/or Zn chloride complexes and re-distribution of sulfur species, and thus can facilitate the hydrolysis of Pb and Zn ions and precipitation of sulfides. Therefore, a weakly acidic to neutral fluid environment is most favorable for the precipitation of Pb and Zn sulfides associated with the carbonate-hosted Pb–Zn deposits.

A Preliminary Study on Fluid Inclusions and Mineralization of Xitieshan Sedimentary-Exhalative (SEDEX) Lead-Zinc Deposit

The Xitieshan lead-zinc deposit is located at the northern margin of the Qaidam Basin, Qinghai Province, China, and had developed a complete marine sedimentary-exhalative system. Our preliminary study of ore-forming fluids shows that fluid inclusions in quartz from altered stockwork rocks that represent the pipe facies have a wide range of temperature and salinity. The intense fluid activities are characteristics of the pipe facies of the exhalative system. Fluid inclusions in carbonates near the unstratified ore bodies hosted in the thick-bedded marble which represents vent-proximal facies are large in size and have moderate to high temperatures. They represent unerupted sub-seafloor fluid activity. Fluids in altered stockwork rocks and carbonates have similar H20-NaCI-CO2 system, both belonging to the sedimentary-exhalative system. The fluids migrate from the pipe facies to the unstratified ore bodies. Boiling of the fluids causes the separation of CO2 vapor and liquid H2O. When the fluids migrate into the unconsolidated thick-bedded marble, the escape of CO2, decreasing temperature and pressure as well as some involvement of seawater into the fluids result in the unmixing of fluids with high and low salinity and deposition of ore-forming materials. The two unmixed fluids were trapped in unconsolidated carbonates and the ore-forming materials were deposited in the unconsolidated carbonates to form the sedimentary-exhalative type unstratified ore bodies. The oreforming temperature of unstratified ore bodies is up to high temperature indicating that there is a huge ore-forming potential in its deep.

Study on the multi-sources of ore-forming materials and ore-forming fluids in the Huize lead-zinc ore deposit

The Huize large-sized Pb-Zn deposit in Yunnan Province, China, is characterized by favorable metallogenic background and particular geological settings. This suggested that the ore-forming mechanism is relatively unique. On the basis of geological features such as the contents of mineralization elements, the REE concentrations of gangue calcites, the REE concentrations of calcite veins in the NE-trending tectonic zone and the Pb, Sr, C, H and O isotopic compositions of different minerals, this paper presents that the ore-forming materials and ore-forming fluids of the deposit were derived from various types of strata or rocks. This is a very significant conclusion for us to further discuss the mineralization mechanism of the deposit at depth and establish an available genetic model.

REE Geochemistry of the Lead-Zinc Ores from the Jinding Lead-Zinc Deposit, Lanping, Yunnan

Nineteen volcanic and magmatic rock samples were collected from the Jinding lead-zinc deposit and its surrounding areas in Yunnan. The ICP and AES analyses, referred to the previous results, show that the metal minerals and altered rocks in the Jinding lead-zinc deposit display a decreasing trend of ΣREE from the early to late stages of mineralization, and similarities in REE distribution patterns, indicating that the ore fluids are characterized by high LREE enrichment, markedly negative δCe anomaly and slight δEu anomaly. These REE distribution patterns exhibit striking similarities to those of the Pliocene trachyte in the study area, both of which are similar in ΣREE, LREE/HREE ratio, δEu and δCe. The ore fluids besides the basin fluids in the deposit are also closely related to those associated with Pliocene trachyte magmas.

Order of sphalerite and galena precipitation: A case study from lead-zinc deposits in southwest China

Most of the lead and zinc deposits in Southwest China, are characterized by mineral zoning, which is especially true for the Huize and Zhaotong deposits. The mineral assemblage zoning is consistent for both horizontal and vertical zoning, from the base(center) of the ore body to the top(outermost), the mineral zones are as follows. I-1: coarse-grained pyrite and a little puce sphalerite;I-2: brown sphalerite, galena, and ferro-dolomite;I-3: galena, sandy beige and pale yellow sphalerite, and calcite;and I-4: fine-grained pyrite, dolomite, and calcite. Among them, sphalerite is the landmark mineral of different zoning. From I-1 to I-3, the color of sphalerite changes from dark to light, its crystalline size changes from coarse to fine, and its structure changes from disseminated to veinlet. This mineral zoning is seen not only on a microscopic scale, but is also clear on a mesoscopic and macroscopic scale. It is caused by the order of the sphalerite and galena precipitation. We studied the metallic minerals and fluid inclusions using a thermodynamic phase diagram method, such as lgfO2–lgfS2, pH–lgfO2, pH–lg[Pb^2+] and pH–lg[HS^-], discussed the constraints on the order of the sphalerite and galena precipitation in the migration and precipitation process of lead and zinc under different pH values, oxygen fugacity, sulfur fugacity, and ionic activity. We also explain the formation mechanism and propose that the main controlling factor of the order of the sphalerite and galena precipitation is sulfur fugacity.

Qinling-Type Lead-Zinc Deposits

Qinling-type Pb-Zn deposits are located in the Qinling fold belt, occurring in the fine-clastic and carbonate rocks of the Devonian marine facies. They are reformed sedimentary deposits originating from hydrothermal waters, and may be subdivided into 2 subtypes: hydrothermal sedimentary deposits (Changba subtype) and reformed hydrothermal sedimentary deposits (Bijiashan-Qiandongshan subtype). In comparison with some of the famous Palaeozoic Pb-Zn deposits in the world, the Qinling-type Pb-Zn deposits constitute an independent type, which possesses some characteristics of both hydrothermal sedimentary deposits (Meggen type) and reformed hydrothermal deposits (Mississippi Valley type).

THE METALLOGENIC STRUCTURE OF VEIN-SHAPED LEAD-ZINCDEPOSIT IN HENGSHANLING-SHEXINGPING,CHENZHOU,HUNAN

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METALLOGENIC ANALYSIS OF THE DEXING COPPER-GOLD-LEAD-ZINC POLYMETALLIC DEPOSITS, JIANGXI PROVINCE, CHINA

The paper discusses the tectonic setting of the fortnation of the Dexing giant copper-gold-lead-zinc deposit and its geological features and demonstrates in detail the polygenetic compound mechanism of its formation.

LAWS GOVERNING THE DISTRIBUTION OF LEAD-ZINC DEPOSITS IN CHINA

An attempt is made in this paper to describe the following laws governing the distribution of lead-zinc deposits in China: spatial distribution laws, temporal distribution laws, deep level control laws, and deposits association and zoning laws.

A review of major non-sulfide zinc deposits in Iran

The numerous non-sulfide zinc ore deposits were the historical basis for the development of zinc mining in Iran.They include the Mehdiabad,Irankouh and Angouran world-class deposits,as well as the Zarigan and Haft-har deposits.These deposits were formed by supergene oxidation of primary sulfide minerals during the complex interplay of tectonic uplift,karst development,changes in the level of the water table,and weathering.Zn(Pb)carbonates,Zn-hydrosilicates and associated hydrated phases directly replace the primary ore bodies or fill cavities along fractures related to uplift tectonics.Direct replacement of primary sulfides is accompanied by distal precipitation of zinc non-sulfide minerals in cavities or internal sediments filling.The mineralogy of the non-sulfide mineralization in all six deposits is generally complex and consists of smithsonite,hydrozincite,and hemimorphite as the main economic minerals,accompanied by iron and manganese oxy-hydroxides and residual clays.Commonly,non-sulfide minerals in these deposits consist of two types of ore:red zinc ore(RZO),rich in Zn,Fe,Pb-(As)and white zinc ore(WZO),typically with very high zinc grades but low concentrations of iron and lead.Typical minerals of the RZO are Fe-oxyhydroxides,goethite,hematite,hemimorphite,smithsonite and/or hydrozincite and cerussite.Common minerals of the WZO are smithsonite or hydrozincite and only minor amounts of Fe-oxyhydroxides and hemimorphite.

Metallogeny of the Baiyangping Lead-Zinc Polymetallic Ore Concentration Area, Northern Lanping Basin of Yunnan Province, China

The Lanping Basin in the Nujiang-Lancangjiang-Jinshajiang （the Sanjiang） area of northeastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau is an important part of eastern Tethyan metallogenic domain. This basin hosts a number of large unique sediment-hosted Pb-Zn polymetallic deposits or ore districts, such as the Baiyangping ore concentration area which is one of the representative ore district. The Baiyangping ore concentration area can be divided into the east and west ore belts, which were formed in a folded tectogene of the India-Asia continental coUisional setting and was controlled by a large reverse fault. Field observations reveal that the Mesozoic and Cenozoic sedimentary strata were outcropped in the mining area, and that the orebodies are obviously controlled by faults and hosted in sandstone and carbonate rocks. However, the oreforming elements in the east ore belt are mainly Pb-Zn -Sr-Ag, while Pb-Zn-Ag-Cu-Co elements are dominant in the west ore belt. Comparative analysis of the C-O-Sr-S-Pb isotopic compositions suggest that both ore belts had a homogeneous carbon source, and the carbon in hydrothermal calcite is derived from the dissolution of carbonate rock strata; the ore- forming fluids were originated from formation water and precipitate water, which belonged to basin brine fluid system; sulfur was from organic thermal chemical sulfate reduction and biological sulfate reduction; the metal mineralization material was from sedimentary strata and basement, but the difference of the material source of the basement and the strata and the superimposed mineralization of the west ore belt resulted in the difference of metallogenic elements between the eastern and western metallogenic belts. The Pb-Zn mineralization age of both ore belts was contemporary and formed in the same metaliogenetic event. Both thrust formed at the same time and occurred at the Early Oligocene, which is consistent with the age constrained by field geological relationship.

New Constraints on the Environmental Impact of Iron Oxides and Lead-Zinc Mines in Red Sea Hills,Egypt

Iron oxides and lead-zinc deposits in host rocks located in ten drainage basins in the coastal plain of the Red Sea,Egypt,have been subjected to important mining activities.The drainage basins were analyzed to estimate the transportations of these minerals. Fourteen soil samples and fifteen plant samples were collected from sites located in the basin and also in neighboring area and chemically analyzed.In

Isotope Geochemistry of the Xinchang -Yongjia Silver (Lead-Zinc)Ore Belt in Eastern Zhejiang Province

In the Xinchang-Yongjia silver (lead-zinc) ore belt, there mainly occur the large to medium-sized Haoshi, Bamao, Dalingkou and Wubu silver deposits or silver-bearing lead-zinc deposits. On the basis of researches on these typical deposits, the mechanism of leaching-drawing mineralization of Mesozoic geothermal water and the related model are put forward in this paper in the light of the time interval between rock and formation ages as well as hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur and lead isotope geochemical characteristics. The major metallogenic process occurred in volcanic rock layers. The ore-forming fluids are geothermal water coming from meteoric water and circulating at shallow layers. This geothermal water leached and absorbed ore-forming materials from its country rocks during its flowing (such metallogenic elements as silver, lead-zinc and sulphur mainly came from consolidated volcanic rocks), leading to the formation of meso - epithermal silver deposits.

贵州青山铅锌矿床中钒的赋存状态研究

钒属于战略性关键金属,其成矿作用研究备受关注。贵州省青山铅锌矿床隶属于川滇黔成矿域威宁-水城Pb-Zn-Ag成矿带,分为青山、横塘两个矿区,为中型铅锌矿床。初步研究表明,横塘矿区氧化矿带的矿石中钒异常富集,但其赋存状态未知。为此,本文利用电感耦合等离子体质谱(ICP-MS)、粉晶X射线衍射(XRD)和扫描电镜(SEM)等多种手段对该矿床的氧化铅锌矿石、蚀变白云岩和辉绿岩的矿物组合以及化学组成进行了系统分析。结果表明,氧化铅锌矿石、蚀变白云岩和辉绿岩中钒含量分别为11.9×10^(–6)~5 963×10^(–6)、168×10^(–6)和448×10^(–6)~701×10^(–6),相对于平均地壳其富集系数分别为20、1.2和4.1。氧化矿石和蚀变白云岩中的钒皆赋存在独立矿物(钒铅锌矿[Pb Zn(VO4)(OH)])中,而且钒铅锌矿中As含量较高,As以类质同象的形式替代V而进入钒铅锌矿中;蚀变辉绿岩中未发现钒的独立矿物,钒可能主要以类质同象的形式取代锐钛矿/金红石(Ti O2)中的Ti。此外,矿石中的V与Cu、Ni、Mo、Bi四种元素的相关性表明它们可能是共同沉淀进入矿石,有着相似的富集规律。氧化矿石的稀土和微量元素配分模式与蚀变白云岩比较接近,指示二者经历了相似的热液过程。钒是主要来自白云岩的交代淋滤还是与辉绿岩有关的岩浆热液有待进一步研究。本次研究表明铅锌矿床中钒以独立矿物和类质同象的形式分别存在于氧化矿石/蚀变白云岩和辉绿岩中,对铅锌矿石中钒的综合利用具有一定指示意义。

论中国铅锌矿床的主岩+成因综合分类

铅锌矿床分类是铅锌矿床地质学的最主要研究课题之一。在《中国矿产地质志·铅锌矿卷》研编过程中,笔者对国内外有关铅锌矿床分类的文献进行了较详细的调查、研究和梳理,并且根据对国内外许多重要铅锌矿床的研究实践,提出了中国铅锌矿床的主岩+成因分类。该分类将中国铅锌矿床划分为11个类型,包括:沉积岩为主岩喷流沉积型、碳酸盐岩为主岩(后生)型、砂岩铅和砂砾岩铅锌矿床、火山岩为主岩块状硫化物型、与侵入岩有关的铅锌矿床、陆相火山岩型、非岩浆成因中低温热液型、非硫化物型、砂矿型、复合型和叠生型。笔者总结提出的中国铅锌矿床综合(主岩+成因)分类表能较好地涵盖全国的铅锌矿床类型、亚型、矿床式及其代表性矿床。复合型和叠生型是中国铅锌矿床特色,找矿前景良好,应加强勘查、开发和研究。

滇西兰坪金顶超大型铅锌矿床围岩微量元素地球化学特征及其意义

滇西兰坪盆地是三江成矿带的重要组成部分,金顶铅锌矿是区内重要的超大型矿床。为了查明金顶超大型铅锌矿床的成矿物质来源,对金顶矿区围岩样品进行微量元素地球化学分析。结果显示,稀土总量接近大陆上地壳的平均稀土元素总量值,轻稀土元素相对富集、重稀土元素相对亏损,呈明显的右倾型,具有显著的Eu负异常。微量元素特征显示Cu的平均含量为24.4×10^(-6),未发生明显富集迁移。Pb、Zn平均含量随矿体距离远近变化较大(Pb含量为2.9×10^(-6)~24.7×10^(-6),平均含量为13.1×10^(-6);Zn含量为8.8×10^(-6)~236.0×10^(-6),平均含量为76.6×10^(-6)),与矿体距离呈现出明显的相关性,距离矿体越近,含量越高。稀土元素特征及微量元素相关关系分析表明,矿区围岩古近纪云龙组地层不是提供成矿物质的矿源层。矿区石膏锶、硫同位素地球化学性质显示金顶矿区的石膏为晚三叠世三合洞组蒸发沉积型,且在适当的成矿温度条件下(150~300℃),石膏会发生热化学还原作用(TSR),为金属硫化物矿床提供硫源。

电沉积锌用铅基阳极服役后表面结构演变研究

针对由于析氧反应的过电位对阳极氧化膜的高度依赖性,极大地影响了能耗这一问题,采用扫描电子显微镜(SEM)、能量色散光谱(EDS)、电子探针(EPMA)和X射线衍射(XRD)对Pb基阳极(阳极含量:Pb-0.5%Ag-(0.02~0.03%)Ca-(0.01~0.02%)Sr-(0.01~0.02%)La)的表面形貌、元素分布和织构进行了表征分析,结果表明:服役后的阳极板表面出现了裂纹和大量空洞。同时还观察了阳极泥的形成可能会导致阳极表面的钝化,影响了其电化学性能。

黔西北青山铅锌矿床构造控矿机理及其对深部找矿的启示

【研究目的】青山铅锌矿床地处扬子地块西南缘的黔西北矿集区威宁—水城成矿亚带中段,严格受构造控制,资源潜力巨大。基于前期资料综合分析及野外地质调研,发现矿区构造成生发展过程和构造控矿机理不清、深部找矿勘查方向不明等问题制约了找矿突破。【研究方法】本文应用矿田地质力学理论和方法,通过大比例尺构造剖面精测、不同方向控矿构造力学性质鉴定与不同期次、序次构造筛分,结合区域构造应力场变化特征,揭示了构造控矿机理。【研究结果】自印支期以来,该区的主压应力方向主要历经了北东-南西向→北西-南东向→北东-南西向→近东西向的转变过程,依次形成了早北西构造带、北东构造带、晚北西构造带、南北构造带(构造体系)。通过成矿构造解析及其与成矿关系讨论,厘定了北东构造带为该矿区的成矿构造体系,揭示了构造分级控矿规律:北西向威宁—水城断裂、威水背斜为矿区的一级控矿构造,控制了威宁—水城矿化带或矿田的展布;威宁—水城断裂扭动作用派生的北西向断裂F1、F2,控制了矿床(矿体群)的分布,为矿区的二级控矿构造;F1、F2断裂间的层间断裂破碎带,直接控制了矿体的形态和产状,为三级控矿构造;矿体旁侧的节理裂隙带控制矿脉,为四级控矿构造。【结论】青山铅锌矿床构造分级控矿规律明显,主要受四个等级的控矿构造控制,并形成了与其相对应的4种矿化样式。