CFD modeling of gas−liquid flow phenomenon in lead smelting oxygen-enriched side-blown furnace

A validated numerical model was established to simulate gas−liquid flow behaviors in the oxygen-enriched side-blown bath furnace.This model included the slip velocity between phases and the gas thermal expansion effect.Its modeling results were verified with theoretical correlations and experiments,and the nozzle-eroded states in practice were also involved in the analysis.Through comparison,it is confirmed that the thermal expansion effect influences the flow pattern significantly,which may lead to the backward motion of airflow and create a potential risk to production safety.Consequently,the influences of air injection velocity and furnace width on airflow behavior were investigated to provide operating and design guidance.It is found that the thin layer melt,which avoids high-rate oxygen airflow eroding nozzles,shrinks as the injection velocity increases,but safety can be guaranteed when the velocity ranges from 175 to 275 m/s.Moreover,the isoline patterns and heights of thin layers change slightly when the furnace width increases from 2.2 to 2.8 m,indicating that the furnace width shows a limited influence on production safety.

A pre-warning system of abnormal energy consumption in lead smelting based on LSSVR-RP-CI

The pre-warning of abnormal energy consumption is important for energy conservation of industrial engineering. However, related studies on the lead smelting industries which usually have a huge energy consumption are rarely reported. Therefore, a pre-warning system was established in this study based on the intelligent prediction of energy consumption and the identification of abnormal energy consumption. A least square support vector regression (LSSVR) model optimized by the adaptive genetic algorithm was developed to predict the energy consumption in the process of lead smelting. A recurrence plots (RP) analysis and a confidence intervals (CI) analysis were conducted to quantitatively confirm the stationary degree of energy consumption and the normal range of energy consumption, respectively, to realize the identification of abnormal energy consumption. It is found the prediction accuracy of LSSVR model can exceed 90% based on the comparison between the actual and predicted data. The energy consumption is considered to be non-stationary if the correlation coefficient between the time series of periodicity and energy consumption is larger than that between the time series of periodicity and Lorenz. Additionally, the lower limit and upper limit of normal energy consumption are obtained.

Traditional Chinese Technology of Crucible Lead Smelting: A Comprehensive Study Based on Historical Records and Archaeological Findings

Crucible lead smelting, a traditional technology unique to China, refers to the production of lead by reducing lead sulfide with iron metal in crucibles. In recent years, a number of crucible lead production sites of the Liao-Jin-Yuan periods(tenth–fourteenth centuries CE) have been found in northern China, providing opportunities for the study of the technology. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of this technology based on the historical and archaeological evidence, with particular emphasis on the crucibles used. Firstly, it reviews the historical records on crucible lead smelting, and introduces, in detail, the technology used in Gansu during the Qing period(1644–1911) as well as indigenous methods used in the twentieth century;secondly, it summarizes the discoveries of crucible lead smelting sites in recent years, and reconstructs the manufacturing of crucibles and the iron reduction method by analysis of the crucible and slag;finally, it expounds the technical characteristics of crucible lead smelting, and explores the origin and development of the technology.

Reductive smelting of spent lead–acid battery colloid sludge in a molten Na_2CO_3 salt

Lead extraction from spent lead–acid battery paste in a molten Na2CO3 salt containing Zn O as a sulfur-fixing agent was studied. Some influencing factors, including smelting temperature, reaction time, Zn O and salt dosages, were investigated in detail using single-factor experiments. The optimum conditions were determined as follows: T = 880°C; t = 60 min; Na2CO3/paste mass ratio = 2.8:1; and the Zn O dosage is equal to the stoichiometric requirement. Under the optimum conditions, the direct recovery rate of lead reached 98.14%. The results suggested that increases in temperature and salt dosage improved the direct recovery rate of lead. XRD results and thermodynamic calculations indicated that the reaction approaches of lead and sulfur were Pb SO4→Pb and Pb SO4→Zn S, respectively. Sulfur was fixed in the form of Zn S, whereas the molten salt did not react with other components, serving only as a reaction medium.

Thermodynamic modeling of lead blast furnace

A thermodynamic model was developed to predict the distribution behavior of Cu, Fe, S, O, Pb, Zn, As, and the heat balance in a lead blast furnace. The modeling results are validated by the plant data of a lead smelter in Kazakhstan. The model can be used to predict any set of controllable process parameters such as feed composition, smelting temperature, degree of oxygen enrichment and volume of oxygen-enriched air. The effects of the blast air, industrial oxygen, and coke charge on the distribution of Cu, Fe, S, O, Pb, Zn, As, the heat balance, and the lead loss in slag, were presented and discussed.

Stabilisation of Pb in Pb Smelting Slag-Contaminated Soil by Compost-Modified Biochars and Their Effects on Maize Plant Growth

Compost has been used to stabilise lead (Pb) in soil. However, compost contains a high level of dissolved organic matter (DOM) which may make Pb bioavailable in plant and thereby limiting its effectiveness and application. Addition of biochar to compost can reduce this effect. Rice husk (RH) and Cashew nut shell (CNS) biochars and compost-modified biochars were used in comparison to compost for stabilizing Pb in lead smelting slag (LSS)-contaminated soil (Pb = 18,300 mg/kg) in Nigeria. Efficiency of Pb stabilisation in control and amended soils was assessed using CaCl2 batch leaching experiment and plant performance. In pot experiments, maize plant was grown on the contaminated soil and on soil treated with minimum and optimum doses of the amendments singly and in combination for 6 weeks. Agronomical and chemical parameters of the plants were measured. CaCl2-extractable Pb in the untreated soil was reduced from 60 mg/kg to 0.55 mg/kg in RHB amended soils and non-detectable in other amended soils. RH-biochar/compost increased plant height, number of leaf and leaf area more than the others. Similarly, at minimum rate, it reduced root and shoot Pb by 91% and 86.0% respectively. Compost-modified rice husk biocharstabilised Pb in lead smelting slag contaminated soil reduced Pb plant uptake and improved plant growth. Lead stabilisation through the use of rice husk biochar with compost may be a green method for remediation of lead smelting slag-contaminated soil.

Vaporization behavior of lead from the FeO-CaO-SiO_2-Al_2O_3 slag system

Vaporization behavior （1163-1463 K） of lead in the slag system of FeO-CaO-SiO2-Al2O3 with CaC% was examined. A thermodynamic estimation with the principle of Gibbs free energy minimization showed that the major vapor species from the sample of the FeO-CaO-SiO2-Al2O3 system＋PbO＋CaCl2 were metallic Pb, PbCl, PbCl2, and FeCl2, at the experimental temperature range. The experimental results show that the mole ratio of vaporized Cl in lead chlorides to vaporized Pb, simply expressed as Cl/Pb decreases with increasing temperature. The larger Cl/Pb means a larger ratio of gaseous PbCl2, since metallic Pb and PbCl vapors are formed in a similar reduction atmosphere. The evaporation is initially rapid and becomes steady after holding for 10 min. Gaseous PbCl2 is mainly formed during the heating period, and at the holding stage, it reacts with FeO to produce gaseous FeCl2 With regard to slag composition, FeO content and basicity significantly affect the evaporation of lead. High FeO content and high basicity promotes the formation of metallic Pb and PbCI, whereas, it prohibits PbCl2 evaporation.

Life cycle inventory analysis of CO_2 and SO_2 emission of imperial smelting process for Pb-Zn smelter

Based on the principle of life cycle assessment, CO2 and SO2 emission of Imperial Smelting Process in a certain zinc-lead smelter was analyzed by life cycle inventory method. According to the system expansion and substitution method, the environmental impacts of co-products were allocated among the main products of zinc, lead and sulfuric acid. The related impacts were assessed by use of Global Warming Potential （GWP） and Acidification Potential （ACP）. The results show that the GWP index from 1998 to 2000 is 11.53, 11.65, 10.93 tCO2-eq/tZn respectively, the ACP index decreases from 14.88 kgSO2-eq/tZn in 1998 to 10.99 kgSO2-eq/tZn in 2000. Power and electricity generation, followed by smelting and zinc distillation, are mainly responsible for GWP. Sintering individually affects ACP. Reduction in greenhouse gas emissions of the ISP may come from energy conservation measures rather than from technological developments. And recycling more secondary Pb and Zn materials effectively treated by ISP, and reducing the amount of primary metal are the main ways to put SO2 emission under control.

铅冶炼渣基生态胶凝材料的研发及重金属固化

铅冶炼渣(LSS)是一种含有重金属(Cr、Ni、Cu、Zn、As和Pb)的危险废物,其不当处置会对生态系统造成不可挽回的危害。本工作采用化灰渣(LAS)、水氯镁石(BF)、矿粉(SP)及适量水泥(CM)协同激发铅冶炼渣制备生态胶凝材料。通过正交试验得到胶凝材料的最优配比,阐述了不同因素对生态胶凝材料抗压强度的影响;采用XRD、SEM、FTIR、硫酸和硝酸法等方法分析了胶凝材料水化产物的特性及重金属浸出规律。研究结果表明:当铅冶炼渣和水泥的质量比为3∶1,化灰渣、水氯镁石、矿粉的外掺量分别为铅冶炼渣和水泥质量总量的20%、10%、10%时,制备出的生态胶凝材料抗压强度最优,28 d抗压强度达到40.9 MPa,且矿粉掺量为影响其抗压强度的第一要素。微观分析表明,胶凝材料的水化产物主要为弗里德尔盐、方解石、C-S-H和C-A-S-H,它们相互连接形成致密的空间网络结构,这不但有助于提高胶凝材料的力学性能,还能实现对重金属元素的物理固封和离子交换吸附固化。胶凝材料对主要重金属的胶结固化率大于83%,重金属浸出液浓度符合生活饮用水卫生标准(GB5749-2006)的要求。

铅锌冶炼重金属重污染土壤稳定化研究

针对部分铅锌冶炼场地遭受严重重金属污染的问题,采用基于铁的稳定化材料FeCl_(3)+CaCl_(2)+NaOH+Ca(OH)_(2),FeCl_(3)+CaCl_(2)+NaOH+Ca(OH)_(2)+Na_(2)S及FeCl_(3)+Na_(2)HPO_(4)进行修复。根据TCLP浸出法评估效果,选出最佳组合为FeCl_(3)+Na_(2)HP0_(4),该组合在3个场地中使Pd浸出浓度分别下降96%,63%,61%,显著减少重金属迁移。研究突显了合适材料的选择对有效土壤稳定化的重要性。

铅基物料冶炼技术发展趋势

我国铅矿资源“贫矿多、富矿少”,海外铅精矿供应过剩量减少。铅冶炼过程存在多元素资源共生、原料品质波动大、冶炼工艺复杂等特点,目前我国有色金属冶炼行业处于机械化、电气化、自动化、信息化并存,不同企业之间呈现发展不平衡的状态。基于以上,本文介绍了铅矿资源(铅精矿和含铅废料)分布情况及铅主要用途,铅冶炼技术发展历程,并概述了当前主要铅基物料冶炼技术,如氧气底吹熔炼-熔融还原-富氧挥发炼铅技术、富氧浸没顶吹炼铅技术、硫酸铅渣湿法炼铅技术、侧吹浸没燃烧熔池熔炼处理再生铅资源技术、脆硫铅锑矿处理技术、铅阳极泥处理技术、铜浮渣及铅精渣处理技术、铅电解技术等,结合铅冶炼的工业生产场景,采用深度学习方法,建立熔炼炉的数据驱动模型,可实现对系统关键运行指标的实时预测与评估,推动铅冶炼技术的智能化、数字化,以迎接铅行业发展机遇与挑战。

黄河流域典型铅锌冶炼企业重金属废水管控与碳排放协同研究

黄河流域作为国家生态安全的重要屏障,重金属污染一直以来备受关注.为提升重金属重点排放源铅锌冶炼行业废水排放管控水平,本文聚焦黄河流域中上游典型地区某铅锌冶炼企业,研究了不同产污环节排放废水中重点重金属排放特征及达标情况,并从行业绿色低碳发展方面测算了不同冶炼工艺流程碳排放强度、不同产污环节排放废水处理过程碳排放强度.结果表明:(1)采用氧化法+硫化钠除汞+石灰中和+生物制剂法+除铊稳定剂的组合处理工艺,污酸废水中总铅、总镉、总汞和总砷的排放浓度均可稳定达到《铅、锌工业污染物排放标准》(GB 25466-2010)特别排放限值要求,以处理后各重金属日最大检出浓度的90%分位数作为参比浓度,该处理工艺对总铅、总镉、总汞的去除率分别为98.2%、99.8%、99.9%.(2)铅锌冶炼企业污酸车间地面冲洗水应全部纳入污酸车间污水处理系统进行集中处理,避免铅、镉、汞、铊等重金属废水稀释排放,长期汇入黄河干流富集造成潜在环境风险.(3)锌冶炼过程重金属主要富存于固相颗粒和液相颗粒中,污酸废水(废气洗涤制酸废水)中总铅、总镉、总汞、总砷产污系数分别为4.83、4.33、7.02、0.01 g/t(以产品计),较实际流向废气中相应重金属产污系数低10^(3)量级.(4)鉴于污酸废水处理碳排放强度约为一般性生产废水的7.93倍,建议加强评估并推广应用2022年《国家先进污染防治技术目录(水污染防治领域)》提出的有色冶炼烟气洗涤污酸废水治理与资源化利用技术,研究提出基于资源化利用途径的污酸废水排放控制要求.(5)湿法炼锌工艺碳排放强度为3.08 t/t(冶炼1 t锌的CO_(2)排放量),相对属于绿色低碳冶炼工艺.研究显示,黄河流域中上游部分典型铅锌冶炼企业已采用相对绿色低碳冶炼工艺,鉴于黄河流域的国家战略定位,需进一步提升末端重金属废水风险管控和减污降碳协同治理力度,引领沿黄冶炼产业高质量发展.

铜熔炼渣的火法回收工艺与铅锌锑富集规律

铜精矿火法冶金后产生的熔炼渣经浮选回收铜后,尾渣含Pb、Zn和Sb,仍具有一定回收经济价值。浮选法对铜熔炼渣中Pb、Zn和Sb的回收率低,而火法熔炼通过高温和碳热还原可以有效分离这些元素。对直接还原熔炼、造锍还原熔炼和氧化-还原熔炼3种典型的火法回收工艺进行了对比中试试验。结果表明:火法回收工艺可达到理想的铜回收率,但不同工艺对Pb、Zn和Sb的回收效果不同;直接还原熔炼提高了Pb的回收率;造锍还原熔炼提高了Zn的回收率;熔炼法需消耗大量还原剂和能源,经济性需慎重考虑。火法熔炼适合作为铜回收的备用工艺进行研究。

西南某铅锌冶炼废渣堆放场地周边土壤重金属污染特征与风险评价

为探究西南某铅锌废堆渣场地及其周围土壤中重金属空间分布特征和生态风险,以西南某废弃铅锌冶炼废渣堆放场地为研究目标,通过检测其土壤中As、Pb、Zn、Cd、Cr、Cu、Hg、Ni共8种元素,概括其空间分布特征,分析重金属存在形态对其迁移与渗透的影响,并采用多个污染评价方法对该废渣堆放场的重金属状况进行污染风险评估。结果表明:堆渣场地重金属元素分布与地表径流方向一致,且向深层土壤渗透;As、Cd、Cu已很难再以离子形态随地表径流进一步迁移,而Pb、Zn目前仍具有较大的离子迁移性能,仍会进一步向周边及深层土壤扩散;按照综合污染指数评价上层堆渣区属于重污染,污染元素主要来源于As;同时As、Cd含量表现出极强的生态毒性,使该区域存在很强的生态风险。研究结果为该区域土壤的进一步修复提供了理论依据和参考。

铅锌冶炼烧结点火炉点火过程数值模拟

为了探究铅锌冶炼工艺中烧结点火炉内点火过程的多物理场分布规律,本文以某企业带式点火炉为研究对象,构建了炉内天然气流动、燃烧与传热过程的数学物理模型,并考虑了铅锌矿料化学反应热以及料层阻力的影响,对点火炉内的点火过程进行了详细的数值模拟研究,深入分析了炉内速度场、温度场和浓度场的分布规律,评价了点火料层的温度均匀性,并分析了其产生的原因,最终总结了点火炉的优化改造建议。结果表明:点火烧嘴中高速气流相向运动形成撞击面,破坏了炉内流场的稳定性;点火段主要位于两排主烧嘴的下方料面区域;主烧嘴气流受点火烧嘴气流的影响而发生偏转,导致点火段料面存在局部低温区,不利于料层的均匀着火。

铅基固废协同熔炼过程在线智能优化控制

铅基固废是生产端和消费端产生的常见固体废物,具有很强的污染性,其绿色处理技术是实现含铅废物污染防治的关键环节。双底吹炼铅工艺协同处理铅基固废是一种经济合理的铅基固废处理方式,相对于传统矿铅冶炼生产操作更为复杂,为确保生产状况处于稳定、经济的状态,对工艺控制系统有了更高要求。中国恩菲工程技术有限公司研发了一套铅基固废协同熔炼过程在线智能优化控制系统,整个系统由在线优化控制系统、智能预警与高效监控系统和系统数据库集成,主要实现以下功能:(1)针对铅基固废协同熔炼过程自动化水平不高的问题,基于冶炼过程机理与生产运行大数据,应用计算机建模和神经网络方法建立了冶炼过程关键参数预测模型,开发了一套铅基固废协同熔炼在线优化控制系统;(2)以车间实景模型为载体,建立了铅基固废协同熔炼智能预警与高效监控系统,实现了工业信号、场景及流程的数字化与可视化;(3)控制系统集成了现场相关软硬件,详细展示各模块间的数据交互与协同运行情况,形成了智能、高效、安全的协同熔炼车间。

铅锌冶炼渣基胶凝材料固化电镀污泥研究

电镀污泥是含有各类重金属的危险废物。本文利用铅锌冶炼渣制备胶凝材料,评估该胶凝材料对固化电镀污泥效果,并阐明了有机聚合物对固化过程的影响机制。结果表明,在碱含量为3.5%(质量分数)、水玻璃模数1.4、液固比0.22条件下,铅锌冶炼渣基胶凝材料可安全固化2.5%(质量分数)的电镀污泥;与未加有机聚合物相比,加入有机聚合物后复合胶凝材料对电镀污泥的固化量提高一倍,同时抗压强度提高27.45%,此时总Cr浸出浓度从20.05 mg/L降低至13.65 mg/L,低于《危险废物鉴别标准浸出毒性鉴别》(GB 5085.3—2007)规定的限值。固化体的矿物组成、微观形貌、化学键和原子价态分析表明,在铅锌冶炼渣中Fe(II)和有机聚合物共同作用下,能有效降低Cr毒性,提高重金属离子固定率。本研究为安全处置电镀污泥及综合利用铅锌冶炼渣提供了新思路。

提高烟化炉处理铅锌冶炼渣能力的实践

某铅锌冶炼厂通过烟化炉处理铅锌冶炼渣回收有价金属,由于烟化炉采用的钢制冷却水套使用寿命短,导致作业率偏低。同时,由于烟化炉冶炼渣的SiO 2含量高,烟化炉经常出现炉渣流动性恶化而影响作业率。随着该冶炼厂渣物料产量的增加,烟化炉能力不足的问题逐渐凸显,急需提升作业率和炉床能力。通过系统研究,对烟化炉的工艺和设备进行优化改造,烟化炉的实际作业率从改造前的85.01%提高到96.48%,床能力提高3.9 t(m^(2)·d),达到21~22 t(m^(2)·d)。

电感耦合等离子体发射光谱法同时测定铅冶炼工作场所空气中的铊砷镉等有害元素

针对铅冶炼工作场所空气中的铊、砷、镉等的含量的快速检测难题,利用升级改造后电感耦合等离子体发射光谱仪,通过使用微孔滤膜收集空气中烟尘,采用高氯酸、硝酸进行消解溶样,配制铊、砷、镉等标准溶液,使用ICP-AES仪器进行铊、砷、镉谱线的选择和干扰校正,能够实现一次溶样,同时完成多种重金属有害元素测定,方法准确快捷,试验研究加标回收率在98%~103%之间,铊、砷、镉的检出限分别达到0.001 5μg/mL、0.002 1μg/m、0.000 1μg/mL等,很好地满足了企业对空气中有害元素快速检测需求。

废铅蓄电池“侧吹炼铅耦合烟气制酸”再生铅工艺的碳排放核算

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