Characterization and Modification of Indonesian Natural Zeolite for Hydrocracking of Waste Lubricant Oil into Liquid Fuel Fraction

Modification and characterization of natural zeolite under some various methods for hydrocracking catalyst of waste lubricant to gasoline and diesel fractions have been conducted. Natural zeolite from Klaten was activated using hydrothermal treatment at temperature 500 ℃ for 6 h （produced ZAAHd）, the ZA sample was treated with hydrothermal followed by Microwave （produced ZAAHdM）, the ZA sample was treated with HCI 3 N at temperature of 90 ℃ for 30 min （produced ZAAH）, the ZAAH sample was heated in to microwave （produced ZAAHM）, the ZAAHM was treated hydrothermal （produced ZAAHMHd）, the ZAAHMHd sample was heated in to microwave （produced ZAAHMHdM）, soaking of natural zeolit activated by HCl-microwave-hydrothermal-microwave in NH4NO3 1 N which was stirred using stirer at room temperature for 24 h （produced ZAAHMHdMN） and the ZAAHMHdMN sample was heated into microwave （ZAAHMHdMNM）. The heating process by microwave was conducted at 550 watt for 15 rain. Catalyst characterization involved determination of the number of total acid sites using gravimetric method with vapour adsorption of NH3 and pyridine, catalyst crystallinity by XRD （X-ray diffraction） and TO4 （T= Si and AI） site by infra red spectrophotometer （IR）. Hydrocracking of waste lubricants oil was performed in a fixed bed reactor of stainless steel at temperature of 450 ℃, H2 flow rate of 15 mL/min., feed/catalyst ratio of 5. Liquid products of the hydrocracking were analyzed using GC （gas chromatography）. The characterization results showed that various modification of natural zeolite increased acidity and dealumination degree of the catalysts. Products of the hydrocracking were liquid, coke, and gas fractions. Liquid products consisted of gasoline fraction （C5-C12）, diesel fraction （C12-C20）, and heavy oil fraction （〉 C20）.Thc conversion of liquid products was increased with the increase of catalyst acidity. The greatest liquid product conversion was produced by the ZAAHMHdMNM catalyst, i.e., 56.80%, with selectivity towards gasoline, diesel, and heavy oil fractions was 88.37%, 8.61% and 3.02%, respectively. The increase of catalyst acidity increased the selectivity of gasoline fraction.

Identification of Lubricating Oil Additives Using XGBoost and Ant Colony Optimization Algorithms

To address the problem of identifying multiple types of additives in lubricating oil,a method based on midinfrared spectral band selection using the eXtreme Gradient Boosting(XGBoost)algorithm combined with the ant colony optimization(ACO)algorithm is proposed.The XGBoost algorithm was used to train and test three additives,T534(alkyl diphenylamine),T308(isooctyl acid thiophospholipid octadecylamine),and T306(trimethylphenol phosphate),separately,in order to screen for the optimal combination of spectral bands for each additive.The ACO algorithm was used to optimize the parameters of the XGBoost algorithm to improve the identification accuracy.During this process,the support vector machine(SVM)and hybrid bat algorithms(HBA)were included as a comparison,generating four models:ACO-XGBoost,ACO-SVM,HBA-XGboost,and HBA-SVM.The results showed that all four models could identify the three additives efficiently,with the ACO-XGBoost model achieving 100%recognition of all three additives.In addition,the generalizability of the ACO-XGBoost model was further demonstrated by predicting a lubricating oil containing the three additives prepared in our laboratory and a collected sample of commercial oil currently in use。

Molecular Mechanism and Molecular Design of Lubricating Oil Antioxidants

To overcome the limitations of traditional experimental“trial and error”methods in lubricant additive design,a new molecular design method based on molecular structure parameters is established here.The molecular mechanism of the antioxidant reaction of hindered phenol,diphenylamine,and alkyl sulfide are studied via molecular simulations.Calculation results show that the strong electron-donating ability and high hydrogen-donating activity of the antioxidant molecule and the low hydrogen-abstracting activity of free radicals formed after dehydrogenation are the internal molecular causes of the shielding of phenol and diphenylamine from scavenging peroxy free radicals,and the strong electron-donating ability is the internal molecular cause of the high activity of thioether in decomposing alkyl hydrogen peroxide.Based on this antioxidant molecular mechanism,a molecular design rule of antioxidant is proposed,namely“high EHOMO,large Q(S),low bond dissociation energy BDE(O—H)and BDE(N—H)”.Two new antioxidants,PAS-I and PAS-II,are designed and prepared by chemical bonding of hindered phenol,diphenylamine,and sulfur atoms.Experimental results show that these antioxidants both have excellent antioxidant effects in lubricating oil,and that PAS-II is the superior antioxidant,consistent with theoretical predictions.

Thermal oxidation of two aviation synthetic lubricant base oils

The thermal degradation of two synthetic lubricants base oils, poly-a-olefins （PAO） and di-esters （DE）, was investigated under oxidative pyrolysis condition and their properties were characterized in simulated ＂areo-engine＂ by comparing the thermal stability and identifying the products of thermal decomposition as a function of exposure temperature. The characterization of the products were performed by means of Fourier transform infrared spectrometry （FTIR）, gas chromatography/mass spectrometry （GC/MS） and viscosity experiments. The results show that PAO has the lower thermal stability, being degraded at 200℃ different from 300 ℃ for DE. Several by-products are identified during the thermal degradation of two lubricant base oils. The majority of PAO products consist of alkenes and olefins, while more oxygen-contained organic compounds are detected in DE samples based on GC/MS analysis. The related reaction mechanisms are discussed based on the experimental results.

A New Experimental Rig of Testing Flow Boiling Heat Transfer of Refrigerantand Lubricant Mixture

This paper proposed a new experimental rig of testing flow boiling heat transfer of refrigerant and lubricant oil mixture. The quantity of oil in the test section can be controlled and regulated conveniently and accurately by connecting separate lubricant oil circuit with test section in parallel. It was built up by retrofitting a multiple air-conditioner and installing three oil-separators in serials at the compressor outlet. And so the lubricant oil in the discharged refrigerant gas of compressor can be removed completely.The refrigerant flow rate through test section can be bypassed by the by-path circuit of indoor unit.This experimental rig has advantages such as on-line and continuous oil injection, short time of obtaining stability, flexible operation, simple control, which lead to high efficiency in the research of flow boiling heat transfer of refrigerant and lubricant oil mixture.

How the fluorographene replaced graphene as nanoadditive for improving tribological performances of GTL-8 based lubricant oil

Fluorographene,a new alternative to graphene,it not only inherits the 2-dimensional(2D)layered structure and outstanding mechanical properties,but also possesses controllable C-F bonds.It is meaningful to reveal the evolution processes of the tribological behaviors from graphene to fluorographene.In this work,fluorinated reduced graphene oxide nanosheets(F-rGO)with different degree of fluorination were prepared using direct gas-fluorination and they were added into gas to liquid-8(GTL-8)base oil as lubricant additive to improve the tribological performance.According to the results,the coefficient of friction(COF)reduced by 21%,notably,the wear rate reduced by 87%with the addition of highly fluorinated reduced graphene oxide(HF-rGO)compared with rGO.It was confirmed that more covalent C-F bonds which improved the chemical stability of HF-rGO resisted the detachment of fluorine so the HF-rGO nanosheets showed less damage,as demonstrated via X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy(XPS),Raman spectra,and transmission electron microscopy(TEM).Meanwhile,the ionic liquid(IL)adsorbed on HF-rGO successfully improved the dispersibility of F-rGO in GTL-8 base oil.The investigation of tribofilm by TEM and focused ion beam(FIB)illustrated that IL displayed a synergy to participate in the tribochemical reaction and increased the thickness of tribofilm during the friction process.

Tribological Properties of Few-layer Graphene Oxide Sheets as Oil-Based Lubricant Additives

The performance of a lubricant largely depends on the additives it involves. However, currently used additives cause severe pollution if they are burned and exhausted. Therefore, it is necessary to develop a new generation of green additives. Graphene oxide（GO） consists of only C, H and O and thus is considered to be environmentally friendly. So the tribological properties of the few-layer GO sheet as an additive in hydrocarbon base oil are investigated systematically. It is found that, with the addition of GO sheets, both the coefficient of friction（COF） and wear are decreased and the working temperature range of the lubricant is expanded in the positive direction. Moreover, GO sheets has better performance under higher sliding speed and the optimized concentration of GO sheets is determined to be 0.5wt%. After rubbing, GO is detected on the wear scars through Raman spectroscopy. And it is believed that, during the rubbing, GO sheets adhere to the sliding surfaces, behaving like protective films and preventing the sliding surfaces from contacting with each other directly. This paper proves that the GO sheet is an effective lubricant additive, illuminates the lubrication mechanism, and provides some critical parameters for the practical application of GO sheets in lubrication.

Predictive methods for density and refractive index of naphthenic lubricating oils during solvent extraction process

Lubricating oils are usually produced by solvent extraction to separate aromatics in order to achieve the desired specifications and better quality products.Among the different properties of lubricating oils,density and refractive index are some of the most important properties which can both be used for petroleum fluid characterization.Predictions of density and refractive index for naphthenic oils during solvent extraction by DMSO obtained by the pseudo-component approach and the quadratic correlation were both examined.The pseudo-component approach is a method to predict density and refractive index from composition while the latter merely relates density to refractive index.Results indicated that the predictions yielded by the pseudo-component method were in good agreement with experimental data for naphthenic oils.And the use of a function of refractive index(FRI_(20))as a pseudo-component property remarkably improved n_(20)predictions for the naphthenic mixtures.However,the density and refractive index predictions obtained by the quadratic correlation exhibited significantly higher de-viations for naphthenic oils than those for paraffinic oils.Thus a new modified correlation of the same functional form was proposed for naphthenic oils.The modification significantly improved predictions for naphthenic oils,which presented similar accuracy as the pseudo-component approach.And the previous correlation was still used for paraffinic oils.Additionally,effect of temperature on density and refractive index of naphthenic oils was examined.Results showed that the modified quadratic correlation was accurate for describing the relationship between density and refractive index of naphthenic oils at 20-90℃.The temperature dependence of density and refractive index for the raffinates and the extracts could be accurately described by the thermal coefficients for saturates and aromatics,respectively.Regarding the refractive index variation of the extracts with temperature,the empirical equation was proved to be a better option compared with the method using the thermal coefficient for aromatics.

Preparation and Characterization of Multiester Derivative from Plant Oil as Base Stock for Biolubricants

As an alternative to petroleum-based lubricants, which are harmful to the environment in excessive amounts, a biodegradable multiester derivative(OFANE) was obtained from plant oil through a chemical modification process with four steps as follows: hydrolysis, esterification, epoxidation, and ring-opening reaction. The physical and chemical properties of OFANE, such as viscosity, acid value, pour point, evaporation loss, and oxidation induction time were measured. Results showed that OFANE had good low-temperature fluidity, thermal-oxidative stability, and tribological properties. The tribological properties of OFANE with dimeric acid additive were evaluated. The final biodegradation experiment indicated that OFANE had excellent biodegradability. The prepared OFANE showed great potential as substitute for petroleum-based lubricating base oils.

Mechanism,Kinetics,and Thermodynamic Characteristics for the Demetallization of Used Lubricating Oil via Pyrolysis

This study analyzed the pyrolysis mechanism,developed a pyrolysis kinetic model,and determined the corresponding thermodynamic parameters for the removal of calcium from used lubricating oil using sulfurized calcium alkyl phenolate(T-115B)as a model compound.The pyrolysis process and products were evaluated by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.Visual inspection indicated that the removal of calcium from T-115B depended primarily on the destruction of micelles caused by the pyrolysis of compounds at high temperatures.The pyrolysis characteristics of T-115B at different heating rates were investigated by thermogravimetry and differential thermal analysis,which revealed two distinct pyrolysis phases.Thus,the pyrolysis mechanism can be described by a twostep model.The activation energy and thermodynamic parameters(ΔH,ΔG,andΔS)were determined by applying the Kissinger-Akahira-Sunose,Flynn-Wall-Ozawa,Friedman,and Starink methods;the average activation energies for T-115B pyrolysis obtained using these methods were 115.80,119.84,124.96,and 116.14 kJ/mol,respectively.Further,both stages of the pyrolysis reaction followed Fn mechanisms with n=1.39 in the first stage and n=0.86 in the second stage.This study provides reliable and effective pyrolysis models along with kinetic and thermodynamic parameters to facilitate the largescale industrial application of used lubricating oil.

Simulation of Solvent Extraction for Naphthenic Lubricating Base Oils

Solvent extraction is the process of separating aromatics from vacuum distillates for the production oflubricating base oils. In this study, the authors use dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) instead of furfural as solvent, in light of itshigher selectivity, to obtain extracts with a high aromatic content for naphthenic lubricating base oils. We systematicallyinvestigated effects of the solvent-to-oil (S/O) ratio and extraction temperature on the yield of the extract, efficiency ofaromatic removal, and composition of the extracts and raffinates. The results showed that the aromatic content of extractsfor naphthenic oils could reach a high value of about 80%. The solvent maintained a high selectivity for aromatics fornaphthenic oils even under a high S/O ratio and a high extraction temperature. Moreover, the efficiency of aromatic removalfor naphthenic lubricating base oils could be enhanced by increasing either the S/O ratio or the extraction temperature,although these measures had limited effects in practice. Following this, we used the non-random two-liquid (NRTL) modelbased on the pseudo-component approach to simulate the liquid-liquid equilibrium of the system of DMSO + naphtheniclubricating base oils, and determined the parameters of binary interaction through regression based on the data on phaseequilibrium. The modeling results showed that the predicted yield, content of the solvent, and composition of the raffinatesand extracts were in good agreement with those obtained in the experiments. This validates the reliability of the model usedto represent the DMSO + naphthenic lubricating base oil system. Both the experimental data and the method of simulationreported here can help optimize the extraction of naphthenic lubricating base oils, and provide a better understanding of thecorresponding process.

Three-dimensional modeling of effect of surface intermetallic phase on surface defects of Al-Fe-Si aluminum foils during twin-roll casting

Scanning electron microscopy and X-ray energy dispersive spectrum analysis show that the clusters of intermetallic AlFeSi particle are distributed on or near the aluminum foil stock surfaces heterogeneously. 3D finite element modeling shows that these clusters of hard particles induce the fracture of the nano-scale lubricant oil film at first and further lead to severe deformation in the nearby aluminum foil substrate along the rolling direction. Consequently, the optical property in this region differs from that in the surroundings, resulting in surface defects.

Tribological effects of oxide based nanoparticles in lubricating oils

In order to enhance the tribological properties of lubricating oil, suitable surfactants such as Tween-20, Tween-60, Span-20 and Sodium sodecylbenzenesulfonate were selected and lubricating oils containing CeO2 and TiO2 nanoparticles were prepared. The morphology and size of CeO2 and TiO2 nanoparticles were examined with a transmission electron microscope （TEM）. The tribological properties of the oils were tested using an MRS-1J four-ball tribotester. The research results show that when the proportion by weight of CeO2 nanoparticles to TiO2 nanoparticles is 1：3, and the total weight fraction is 0.6%, the lubricating oil has optimal anti-wear and friction reducing properties. The addition of CeO2 nanoparticles reduces the required amount of TiO2 nanoparticles.

Superlubricity behaviors of Nitinol 60 alloy under oil lubrication

The tribological tests were performed using Nitinol 60 alloy pin sliding over GCr15 steel disc in the tribometer system. Four kinds of oils were experimentally investigated as lubrication oils for lubricating Nitinol 60 alloy in the boundary lubrication regime. The experimental results were compared with a reference dry friction. It was found that Nitinol 60 alloy can be lubricated significantly and has shown remarkable lubrication performance. A superlubricity behavior of Nitinol 60 alloy was observed under castor oil lubrication. An ultra-low coefficient of friction of Nitinol 60 alloy about 0.008 between Nitinol 60 alloy and GCr15 steel was obtained under castor oil lubrication condition after a running-in period. Accordingly, the present study is focused on the lubrication behaviors of castor oil as potential lubrication oil for Nitinol 60 alloy. In the presence of castor oil, coefficient of friction is kept at 0.008 at steady state, corresponding to so-called superlubricity regime （when sliding is then approaching pure rolling）. The mechanism of superlubricity is attributed to the triboformed OH-terminated surfaces from friction-induced dissociation of castor oil and the boundary lubrication films formed on the contact surface due to high polarity and long chain of castor oil allowing strong interactions with the lubricated surfaces.

OBJECT-ORIENTED IMPLEMENTATION OF EXPERT SYSTEMS FOR ENGINE LUBRICATING OIL INSPECTION

The inspection of engine lubricating oil can give an indication of the internal condition of an engine. By means of the Object-Oriented Programming (OOP), an expert system is developed in this paper to computerize the inspection. The traditional components of an expert system, such us knowledge base, inference engine and user interface are reconstructed and integrated, based on the Microsoft Foundation Class (MFC) library. To testify the expert system, an inspection example is given at the end of this paper.

Rapidly determining kinematic viscosity of aviation lubricating oil 50-1-4Φ by mid-infrared spectrometry

This paper analyzed 11 lubricating oil 50-1-4Ф samples of different base oil content （standard oil） and 28 used oil samples by Fourier transform mid-infrared spectrometer （FTIR）. First, the absorption peak of 1 465 cm 1 was selected as the characteristic peak for determining their kinematic viscosities. And then correlation of the kinematic viscosity and the absorbance at characteristic peaks of corresponding infrared spectrum of standard oil and used oil samples was analyzed, re- spectively, and two regression equations were proposed. Finally, the regression equation of standard oil was corrected through other 20 new oil samples. The results show that determining kinematic viscosity of new lubricating oil 50-1-4Ф and the used one by FTIR is feasible and reliable.

Rapidly determining fuel pollution level of aviation lubricating oil 50-1-4Φby mid-infrared spectrometry

A series of aviation lubrication oil 50-1-4φ samples were prepared with different RP-3 content, and then these sam- ples were analyzed by Fourier transform mid-infrared spectrometer （FTIR）. The infrared region of 805--755 cm-1 was selected as quantitative area for determining fuel pollution level of aviation lubrication oil. Finally, correlation of the testing peak area and the fuel pollution level of corresponding samples were analyzed, and the regression equation was proposed. The results show that determining jet fuel pollution level of aviation lubricating oil by FTIR is feasible and reliable.

Study on application of CeO_2 and CaCO_3 nanoparticles in lubricating oils

The ceria （CeO2） nanoparticles and calcium carbonate （CaCO3） nanoparticles were chosen as additives of anti-wear and extreme pressure for lubricating oils, and the morphology and sizes of nanoparticles were examined using Transmission Electron Microscope （TEM）. The tribological performance of lubricating oils containing combined nanoparticles were determined by four-ball friction and wear tester, and the chemical composition of steel ball with worn surface were analyzed by X-ray Photoelectron Spectrurn（XPS）. The results showed that the lubricating oils containing combined nanoparticles had good anti-wear and friction reducing effects, and the tribological properties were optimal when WCeO2＋CaCO3=0.6%, WCeO2：WCaCO3=1：1. The extreme pressure value increased by 40.25%, the wear spot diameter reduced by 33.5%, and friction coefficient reduced by 32% compared with 40CD oil. The coordinated action of big and small particles made anti-wear and friction reducing effective. Tribological chemical reactions resulting from the friction surface formed metal calcium, metal cerium and oxides film, and they could fill up the concave surface and protect the worn surface.

Tribological Performances of Fatty Acyl Amino Acids Used as Green Additives in Lubricating Oil

The friction and wear characteristics of lauroyl glutamine, lauroyl glycine and lauroyl alanine, used as green additives in HVI 350 mineral lubricating oil, were evaluated on a four-ball tribotester. The morphologies and chemical species of the worn surfaces were analyzed by scanning electron microscope （SEM） and X-ray photoelectron spectroscope （XPS）, respectively. The test results indicated that the three fatty acyl amino acids could effectively improve the anti-wear and friction-reducing abilities of the HVI 350 mineral oil. The improvement in anti-wear and friction-reducing abilities of the mineral oil by the related amino acids was mainly ascribed to the formation of a composite boundary lubrication film due to the adsorption of amino acids on the friction surfaces.

Nanosized copper powders prepared by gel-casting method and their application in lubricating oil

Nanosized copper powders were prepared by a gel-casting method using copper nitrate, acrylamide（AM） and N, N′-methylenebisacrylamide（MBAM） as the main raw materials. The as-prepared copper powders were characterized by X-ray diffractometry and scanning electron microscopy, and then added into a 48# industrial white oil. Dispersion and wear properties of the compounded lubricating oil were tested. The results show that the copper powders prepared are of high purity, fine dispersibility with mean particle size of about 60 nm and with a narrow particle size distribution. The nanosized copper powders can be well dispersed in the lubricating oil. The addition of the copper powders obviously improves the anti-wear properties of the lubricating oil owing to their good self-repairing performance. Compared with 48# industrial white lubricating oil, the friction coefficient of GCr15 steel with the compounded oil containing 0.6% copper powders reduces by 0.07 and nearly no wear chippings are found in the scratches of the friction counter parts.