海洋飞沫对台风“Morakot”结构影响的数值模拟研究

将海洋飞沫参数化引入到高分辨率、非静力中尺度模式中,并对0908号台风"Morakot"进行了数值模拟,研究了海洋飞沫对台风"Morakot"结构和强度的影响。结果表明:(1)不论是否考虑海洋飞沫作用,模式均能较好地模拟出台风"Morakot"的移动路径,说明海洋飞沫对其移动路径影响不大;(2)引入海洋飞沫参数化后,台风眼墙区域的切向风速、径向风速、垂直速度、涡度、云水混合比、雨水混合比等物理量均增强,表明飞沫对台风结构变化的影响明显;(3)海洋飞沫对台风"Morakot"演变的直接影响是在对流层低层,低层风速明显增大,大风速区的影响尤为显著;(4)飞沫的蒸发使台风范围内的潜热和感热通量明显增强,尤其是潜热通量,其大值区对应着台风中心附近的最大风速区。由于水汽和热量输送的增强,使台风眼壁附近的云水量与雨水量增多,因此降水强度明显增加。

台风Morakot(2009)暴雨中关键尺度位涡的诊断分析

采用二维小波变换方法对格点分析资料进行多尺度分解,诊断分析台风Morakot（2009）登陆福建省霞浦市过程中位涡的多尺度特征.在此基础上,讨论了多尺度位涡正压项通量散度对位涡正压项局地变化的贡献.研究结果表明,在此次台风登陆过程中位涡主要包含第4、5关键尺度（理论波长范围为96.4～160.67 km）动力扰动和第3、4关键尺度（理论波长范围为64.27～128.54 km）热力扰动的综合信息.由于关键尺度位涡正压项的强度大于斜压项,因而位涡主要体现了第4、5动力尺度垂直涡度与第3、4热力尺度广义位温垂直梯度的耦合作用.第4、5动力尺度西南扰动气流为台风暴雨提供充足的水汽供应,在台风环流西北侧产生低层辐合、中高层辐散,为强对流系统的发生提供有利动力条件.第3、4热力尺度的广义位温扰动一方面增加降水区大气湿斜压性,另一方面在降水区低层形成位势不稳定,为强对流的发展提供潜在不稳定能量.位涡正压项方程强迫项的分析表明,关键尺度位涡正压项通量输送对位涡正压项局地变化有一定贡献,影响位势稳定度的变化.在台风登陆后,关键尺度位涡及位涡正压项通量散度都有所减小,使得垂直涡度和位势稳定度的变化趋缓.

MICROPHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RAINDROP SIZE DISTRIBUTION IN TYPHOON MORAKOT(2009)

Microphysical characteristics of the raindrop size distribution(RSD)in Typhoon Morakot(2009) have been studied through the PARSIVEL disdrometer measurements at one site in Fujian province,China during the passage of the storm from 7 to 10 August 2009.The time evolution of the RSD reveals different segments of the storm.Significant difference was observed in the microphysical characteristics between the outer rainband and the eyewall;the eyewall precipitation had a broader size distribution(a smaller slope) than the outer rainband and eye region.The outer rainband and the eye region produced stratiform rains while the eyewall precipitation was convective or mixed stratiform-convective.The RSD was typically characterized by a single peak distribution and well represented by the gamma distribution.The relations between the shape(μ)and slope(Λ)of the gamma distribution and between the reflectivity(Z)and rainfall rate(R)have been investigated.Based on the NW-Dm relationships,we suggest that the stratiform rain for the outer rainband and the eye region was formed by the melting of graupel or rimed ice particles,which likely originated from the eyewall clouds.

Effects of Surface Flux Parameterization on the Numerically Simulated Intensity and Structure of Typhoon Morakot(2009)

The effects of surface flux parameterizations on tropical cyclone（TC） intensity and structure are investigated using the Advanced Research Weather Research and Forecasting（WRF-ARW） modeling system with high-resolution simulations of Typhoon Morakot（2009）.Numerical experiments are designed to simulate Typhoon Morakot（2009） with different formulations of surface exchange coefficients for enthalpy（C_K） and momentum（C_D） transfers,including those from recent observational studies based on in situ aircraft data collected in Atlantic hurricanes.The results show that the simulated intensity and structure are sensitive to C_K and C_D,but the simulated track is not.Consistent with previous studies,the simulated storm intensity is found to be more sensitive to the ratio of C_K/C_D than to C_K or C_D alone.The pressure-wind relationship is also found to be influenced by the exchange coefficients,consistent with recent numerical studies.This paper emphasizes the importance of C_D and C_K on TC structure simulations.The results suggest that C_D and C_K have a large impact on surface wind and flux distributions,boundary layer heights,the warm core,and precipitation.Compared to available observations,the experiment with observed C_D and C_K generally simulated better intensity and structure than the other experiments,especially over the ocean.The reasons for the structural differences among the experiments with different C_D and C_K setups are discussed in the context of TC dynamics and thermodynamics.

Numerical Simulation on a Tremendous Debris Flow Caused by Typhoon Morakot in the Jiaopu Stream,Taiwan

In August 2009,Typhoon Morakot brought a large amount of rainfall with both high intensity and long duration to a vast area of Taiwan.Unfortunately,this resulted in a catastrophic landslide in Hsiaolin Village,Taiwan.Meanwhile,large amounts of landslides were formed in the Jiaopu Stream watershed near the southeast part of the Hsiaolin Village.The Hsiaolin Village access road(Provincial Highway No.21 and Bridge No.8) was completely destroyed by the landslide and consequent debris flow.The major scope of this study is to apply a debris flow model to simulate the disaster caused by the debris flow that occurred in the Jiaopu Stream during Typhoon Morakot.According to the interviews with local residents,this study applied the destruction time of Bridge No.8 and Chen's house to verify the numerical debris flow model.By the spatial rainfall distributions information,the numerical simulations of the debris flow are conducted in two stages.In the first stage(before the landslide-dam failure),the elevation of the debris flow and the corresponding potential damages toward residential properties were investigated.In the second stage(after the landslidedam failure),comparisons of simulation results between the longitudinal and cross profiles of the Jiaopu Stream were performed using topographic maps and satellite imagery.In summary,applications of the adopted numerical debris flow model have shown positive impact on supporting better understanding of the occurrence and movement of debris flow processes.

Formation and Development of a Mountain-induced Secondary Center inside Typhoon Morakot(2009)

The structural evolution of Typhoon Morakot（2009） during its passage across Taiwan was investigated with the WRF model. When Morakot approached eastern Taiwan, the low-level center was gradually filled by the Central Mountain Range（CMR）, while the outer wind had flowed around the northern tip of the CMR and met the southwesterly monsoon to result in a strong confluent flow over the southern Taiwan Strait. When the confluent flow was blocked by the southern CMR, a secondary center（SC） without a warm core formed over southwestern Taiwan. During the northward movement of the SC along the west slope of the CMR, the warm air produced within the wake flow over the northwestern CMR was continuously advected into the SC, contributing to the generation of a warm core inside the SC. Consequently, a well-defined SC with a warm core, closed circulation and almost symmetric structure was produced over central western Taiwan, and then it coupled with Morakot＇s mid-level center after crossing the CMR to reestablish a new and vertically stacked typhoon. Therefore, the SC inside Morakot was initially generated by a dynamic interaction among the TC＇s cyclonic wind, southwesterly wind and orographic effects of the CMR, while the thermodynamic process associated with the downslope adiabatic warming effect documented by previous studies supported its development to be a well-defined SC. In summary, the evolution of the SC in this study is not in contradiction with previous studies, but just a complement, especially in the initial formation stage.

FLO-2D Simulation of Mudflow Caused by Large Landslide Due to Extremely Heavy Rainfall in Southeastern Taiwan during Typhoon Morakot

Daniau Village in Daniau Creek Watershed,Taitung County,Taiwan,sustained damages from landslides and mudflows during Typhoon Morakot in 2009.The purpose of this study is to adopt the FLO2D numerical model recognized by Federal Emergency Management Agency(FEMA) to simulate the mudflow,and the Daniau Village was used as a case study,along with rainfall and digital terrain data for this simulation.On the basis of sediment yields,the residual sediment volume in the landslide area was determined to be 33,276 m 3 by comparison of digital elevation models(DEMs) and by using the universal soil loss equation(USLE).In addition,this study performed a hydrological frequency analysis of rainfall to estimate the flow discharge as conditions of the simulation.Results of disaster surveys were collected to compare with outputs of the numerical model.Results of the simulation conducted with FLO2D indicated that if the countermeasure was not destroyed,the drainage work would function without overflow.This study aimed to review the effectiveness of countermeasure on the basis of simulation results obtained by using the model to provide references for future disaster prevention and resident evacuation plans.

Reflection of Typhoon Morakot-The Challenge of Compound Disaster Simulation

Climate change has altered locally singletype disasters to large-scale compound disasters because of increasing intensity and frequency of extreme rainfall events.The compound disasters can combine small-scale floods,debris flows,shallow landslides,deep-seated landslides,and landslide lakes into a large-scale single disaster event.Although simulation models and evaluation tools are available for single-type disasters,no single model is well developed for compound disasters due to the difficulty of handling the interrelationship between two successive single-type disasters.This study proposes a structure for linking available single-type simulation models to evaluate compound disasters and provides a useful tool of decision making for warning and planning of disaster reduction.

Improving the Extreme Rainfall Forecast of Typhoon Morakot(2009) by Assimilating Radar Data from Taiwan Island and China's Mainland

This study examined the impact of an improved initial field through assimilating ground-based radar data from China's Mainland and Taiwan Island to simulate the long-lasting and extreme rainfall caused by Morakot（2009）. The vortex location and the subsequent track analyzed through the radial velocity data assimilation（VDA） are generally consistent with the best track. The initial humidity within the radar detecting region and Morakot＇s northward translation speed can be significantly improved by the radar reflectivity data assimilation（ZDA）. As a result, the heavy rainfall on both sides of Taiwan Strait can be reproduced with the joint application of VDA and ZDA. Based on sensitivity experiments, it was found that, without ZDA, the simulated storm underwent an unrealistic inward contraction after 12-h integration, due to underestimation of humidity in the global reanalysis, leading to underestimation of rainfall amount and coverage. Without the vortex relocation via VDA, the moister（drier） initial field with（without） ZDA will produce a more southward（northward） track, so that the rainfall location on both sides of Taiwan Strait will be affected. It was further found that the improvement in the humidity field of Morakot is mainly due to assimilation of high-value reflectivity（strong convection） observed by the radars in Taiwan Island, especially at Kenting station. By analysis of parcel trajectories and calculation of water vapor flux divergence, it was also found that the improved typhoon circulation through assimilating radar data can draw more water vapor from the environment during the subsequent simulation, eventually contributing to the extreme rainfall on both sides of Taiwan Strait.

NUMERICAL EXPERIMENTAL STUDY FOR THE EFFECT OF A BINARY TYPHOON SYSTEM ON THE EXTREME RAINFALL OF TYPHOON MORAKOT(0908)

A high-resolution numerical simulation of the extreme rainfall caused by typhoon Morakot(0908)over Taiwan Province,China,was made using the WRF-ARW/NCAR model(Version 3.2),ERA Interim reanalysis data(resolution:1.5°×1.5°)from the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts(ECMWF),and global real-time sea surface temperature analysis data(RTG_SST,0.5°×0.5°)from NCEP/NOAA.The numerical simulation results showed that the extreme rainfall caused by Morakot over Taiwan was closely related to water vapor transport of the southwesterly flow.However,the effect of a binary typhoon system between Morakot and Severe Tropical Storm Goni(0907)was also an important factor.Goni strengthened the intensity of the southwesterly flow and the water vapor transport to Morakot and resulted in the heavy rainfall increasing over central and southern mountainous areas of Taiwan.Furthermore,the effect of the binary typhoon system increasing the northward component of the track of Morakot,and the typhoon’s slow translation to Taiwan,caused the longtime and persistent severe rainfall over southern Taiwan.After removing Goni’s circulation in the model initial field,the cumulative precipitation was greatly reduced by 35.78%,33.03%and 31.5%in the 18-,6-and 2-km resolution model results,respectively.

CAN THE EXTREME RAINFALL ASSOCIATED WITH TYPHOON MORAKOT (2009) HAPPEN IN HONG KONG?

Typhoon Morakot hit Taiwan in August 2009 and brought torrential rain and high death toll to the region. The registered maximum cumulative rainfall depth approached the world record of the greatest point rainfall. In this paper, the risk of experiencing rain episodes of similar severity in Hong Kong was assessed using the Advanced Research WRF(Weather Research and Forecast) model to simulate a direct hit of Typhoon Morakot to the city. A number of numerical experiments were conducted by transplanting the vortex of Morakot and the associated environmental conditions to the South China Sea to study the amount of rainfall that could fall in Hong Kong. The results revealed that the difference in the topography between Taiwan and Hong Kong alone accounted for more than 60% of the total rainfall registered in Taiwan. The enormous land mass of China to the north of Hong Kong would also weaken Morakot rapidly upon its landfall over the south China coast, causing a shift in its track and redistribution of rainfall, and a further reduction of the rainfall amount that Hong Kong would receive. Despite that, some experiments suggested that Hong Kong could receive nearly 800 mm of rainfall in 24 hours, a figure that would break the historical record of 697.1 mm set in 1889 in Hong Kong.

集合动力因子对登陆台风“莫拉克”(0908)暴雨落区的诊断与预报研究

"莫拉克"是2009年登陆我国热带气旋中影响范围最广、造成损失最大的台风。"莫拉克"带来的强降水导致台湾南部发生50年来最严重的水灾,福建、浙江等省的部分站点过程雨量超过50年一遇。因此,在台风暴雨(强降水)预报中,能否准确把握其落区就显得尤为重要。本文首先利用中尺度非静力数值模式WRF对台风"莫拉克"进行高分辨率数值模拟(三层嵌套,最高分辨率为2km)。模式较好地再现了台风中心的移动路径、强度;模拟的降水分布区域与实况也较为相符。利用再分析资料及模拟的高分辨率资料对暴雨成因进行诊断分析,表明造成此次强降水过程的水汽主要由西南季风输送,并且垂直运动旺盛,贯穿整个对流层。根据集合动力因子预报方法,运用广义湿位温、对流涡度矢量垂直分量及水汽散度通量对暴雨落区进行了诊断和预报,发现广义湿位温等值线的"漏斗状"区域与暴雨落区对应关系显著;基于NCEP-GFS每日四次的预报场资料,利用对流涡度矢量和水汽散度通量做出的降水落区预报表明,二者对降水落区均有一定的指示意义。强降水主要位于对流层中低层对流涡度矢量垂直积分量的梯度大值区附近,其时间演变与观测降水的演变具有相当高的一致性;水汽通量散度抓住了垂直运动和水汽散度这两个引发暴雨的关键因子,对降水的发生范围和强降水极值中心的判断更为准确。这三个动力因子都可以为"莫拉克"台风暴雨(强降水)落区提供信号,对台风暴雨落区具有一定的诊断和预报意义。

FY-3A微波资料在“莫拉克”台风预报中的同化试验

我国新一代极轨气象卫星FY-3A于2008年5月26日发射成功,携带的微波垂直探测仪与NOAA系列卫星的ATOVS性能相似。为研究微波垂直探测仪资料在台风数值预报中的作用,实现我国FY-3A卫星的微波探测资料的直接同化,达到改进台风预报的目的,利用FY-3A微波探测资料,以WRF-3DVar系统为基础,针对2009年第8号台风"莫拉克"路径和强度预报,开展数值预报直接同化技术研究。试验结果表明,直接同化FY-3A微波资料对数值模式初始场改进要优于仅仅同化常规观测资料,对缺乏观测资料的海洋上改进尤为明显,模式初始场更加合理地反映海上台风环流形势以及温湿条件,海上台风的模式初始位置也得到了校正;经过FY-3A微波资料三维变分直接同化后,区域中尺度模式对台风路径预报效果具有积极的改善作用。

台风莫拉克(0908)影响期间近地层风特性

通过对台风莫拉克(0908)影响范围内的33座测风塔观测资料的分析可知:台风莫拉克越靠近陆地,风场的非对称性越明显,其行进方向的左侧测风塔风向呈逆时针旋转,右侧测风塔风向顺时针旋转。在远离台风莫拉克的地方风向稳定,湍流强度变化较平稳;在台风莫拉克登陆点附近,风向、风速和湍流强度均会出现突变。台风莫拉克影响期间,湍流强度与风速的关系未出现IEC标准曲线那样随风速增大稳定减小,其I_(15)达B级和A级及以上的平均湍流强度会在风速7～17 m·s^(-1)形成一个峰值;无论南风或北风,风速越大,各层湍流强度差异趋于减小,同等风速、高度的湍流强度偏南大风均大于偏北大风。位于台风莫拉克登陆点北侧测风塔湍流强度随风速的增加先减小后增大,最终各高度全部超过IEC标准A级曲线,而位于南侧测风塔湍流强度随风速的变化比北侧小,并随风速增大趋于标准A级曲线;另外北侧测风塔湍流强度大于南侧,且各高度偏北大风湍流强度之间的差异比南侧相应风向明显,表明北侧垂直方向的扰动更强。台风莫拉克阵风系数为1.2～1.7,其随高度变化与地形有关,一般情况下随高度升高而减小,在复杂地形条件下不符合随高度升高减小的规律。

基于去相关拉伸光谱增强的HJ-1影像水体信息提取方法研究

当今人类面临着一系列全球性问题,自然灾害是其中之一,而做好防灾减灾工作的重要前提就是做好对灾害的监测。本文利用HJ-1星2009年台风"莫拉克"前后多时相影像,首先进行辐射定标和影像配准,然后进行去相关拉伸(decorrelation stretch,DS)光谱增强,再采用最大似然分类法(Maximum likelihoodclassification)进行分类,提取水体信息,监测台风暴雨引起的水体变化情况。结果表明,DS光谱增强之后,各波段的相关性大幅减小,各种地物在影像上的光谱差异增大,有利于最大似然法分类时各地物的识别,各个时相总体分类精度高于96.0%,Kappa系数也大于0.94,比未进行DS光谱增强的分类精度高;最终提取出各时相水体信息,通过比较不同时相的水库水面面积,可以为合理地调度泄洪,保证水库下游的安全提供决策依据。

台风莫拉克的偏振参量演变分析

2009年8月6～10日X波段双线偏振多普勒雷达对200908号台风"莫拉克"(Morakot)进行了观测,根据台风的移动路径和进入雷达观测区域的台风不同部位,分为台风螺旋雨带、台风眼壁和台风后雨带3个部位,针对这3个部位的偏振参量及粒子信息进行了比较分析。结果表明,浅对流普遍存在于台风各个部位;台风各部位均有过冷水和湿雪存在,台风后雨带中还有少量霰粒子和冰雹粒子;且台风融化层特征明显,各部位均存在高ZDR、低ρHV(0)层带和小范围的高KDP层;台风眼区的粒径较其他两个部位粒径偏小;通过偏振参量统计发现ZH、ZDR和ρHV(0)垂直分布特征明显,不同部位差异较大,KDP在不同部位统计特征差异较小。

“莫拉克”台风螺旋雨带与水平涡度的关系

利用实况资料和WRF模拟资料,分析2009年8月6—10日"莫拉克"台风在台湾地区造成强降水过程中台风螺旋雨带与水平涡度的关系。结果表明:模式较好地模拟出了本次台风暴雨的发生发展过程。在7日00时—9日00时,台风外围有两条螺旋雨带,一支位于台湾的中部偏南,一支位于台湾的南部,暴雨主要位于这两支螺旋雨带上;暴雨出现在环流上升支附近,在中低层,雨带对应着较大的指向东的水平涡度,且随着水平涡度大值区移动而移动,显示出两者较密切的联系;水平涡度的大值区与垂直涡度的大值区也有较好的对应关系,存在水平涡度向垂直涡度的转化;水平涡度的旋度正值区对应上升运动区,其旋度的大值区对应强的螺旋雨带与降水。当水平涡度减小时,若水平涡度的旋度正值区存在,雨带仍然可以维持。

环境风垂直切变对0908号台风“莫拉克”影响的分析

利用多种卫星观测资料和NCEP/NCAR提供的风场资料等,分析环境风垂直切变对0908号台风"莫拉克"的强度、对流和降水结构的影响。结果表明:环境风垂直切变不是影响"莫拉克"强度变化的直接因素。"莫拉克"登陆前,在较强环境风垂直切变作用下,最大对流和降水区域均位于顺切变方向左侧,降水呈一阶非对称分布。"莫拉克"登陆后,在较弱环境风垂直切变作用下,最大对流区域出现在顺切变方向右侧距台风中心较远处。

纬度依赖背景场误差协方差及其对台风同化和预报的影响研究

合理的背景场误差协方差矩阵是做好变分同化的关键。为进一步认识背景场误差协方差矩阵在中尺度预报中的作用,对背景场误差协方差中平衡关系的纬度依赖特征及其对中尺度同化及预报效果的影响进行了研究。为使得平衡关系既包含纬度依赖特征,又降低纬度依赖带来的非平衡的噪音信息,在背景场误差协方差矩阵构造的平衡变换过程中引入了递归滤波的方法,对平衡变换中的回归系数进行了滤波平滑。同化单点观测的理想试验表明纬度依赖的背景场误差协方差具有更合理的动力关系,且滤波后的背景场误差协方差既保持了纬度依赖特征且明显平滑了噪音信息。台风"莫拉克"同化数值模拟试验表明纬度依赖的背景场误差协方差明显提高了36 h及以上的中心海平面最低气压和路径预报的预报效果。

引入对流凝结潜热作用对非均匀饱和大气中非地转湿Q矢量的改进研究

结合2009年第8号台风"莫拉克"登陆福建省引发的强降水过程,通过考虑对流凝结潜热加热,探讨了对非均匀饱和大气中非地转湿Q矢量(Qum)的改进。结果表明:(1)2009年8月9日08:00(北京时,下同)～10日08:00台风"莫拉克"给浙江大部分地区和福建中北部地区带来了一次暴雨过程,WRF模式较成功地模拟出了此次强降水过程。(2)850hPa Qum矢量散度场对同期降水落区具有一定指示意义,散度辐合强度变化与降水强度变化趋势有一定的对应关系。(3)此次暴雨过程中伴有大量的对流凝结潜热释放,最大潜热中心主要位于600hPa。(4)考虑对流凝结潜热加热作用得到改进的Qum矢量,600hPa改进后的Qum矢量散度辐合区对同期降水落区的指示作用得到进一步增强,诊断能力也得到进一步提高。