Association of Comorbid Asthma and the Efficacy of Bioabsorbable Steroid-eluting Sinus Stents Implanted After Endoscopic Sinus Surgery in Patients with Chronic Rhinosinusitis with Nasal Polyps

Objective To identify factors affecting the efficacy of steroid-eluting sinus stents implanted after endoscopic sinus surgery(ESS)in patients with chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyps(CRSwNP).Methods We performed a post-hoc analysis of a randomized self-controlled clinical trial on post-operative implantation of bioabsorbable steroid-eluting stents in patients with CRSwNP.Univariate logistic regression analysis was conducted to identify which of the following factors affect the response to post-operative stent implantation:sex,serum eosinophil levels,history of prior surgery,endoscopic scores,and comorbid conditions(asthma and allergic rhinitis).The primary outcome was the rate of post-operative intervention on day 30,and the secondary outcome was the rate of polypoid tissue formation(grades 2–3)on days 14,30,and 90.Results A total of 151 patients with CRSwNP were included in the post-hoc analysis.Asthma was identified as the only risk factor for a poor response to steroid-eluting sinus stents on post-operative day 30,with an odds ratio of 23.71(95%CI,2.81,200.16;P=0.004)for the need for post-operative intervention and 19(95%CI,2.20,164.16;P=0.003)for moderate-to-severe polypoid tissue formation.In addition,the asthmatic group showed higher rates of post-operative intervention and polypoid tissue formation than the non-asthmatic group on post-operative day 30.Blood eosinophil levels were not identified as a risk factor for poor outcomes after stent implantation.Conclusion Comorbid asthma,but not blood eosinophil level,impairs the efficacy of steroid-eluting sinus stents in the short term after ESS in patients with CRSwNP.

Expression of IL-17 and Syndecan-1 in Nasal Polyps and Their Correlation with Nasal Polyps

Nasal polyp(NP) is a common chronic inflammatory disease of the nasal cavity and sinuses. Although some authors have suggested that NP is related to inflammatory factors such as interleukin(IL)-1β, IL-5, IL-8, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor(GM-CSF), tumor necrosis factor(TNF)-α, and IL-17, the mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis and progression of NP remain obscure. This study investigated the expression and distribution of IL-17 and syndecan-1 in NP, and explored the roles of these two molecules in the pathogenesis of eosinophilic chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyps(Eos CRSwNP) and non-Eos CRSwNP. Real-time PCR and immunohistochemistry were used to detect the expression of IL-17 and syndecan-1 in samples [NP, unciform process(UP) from patients with CRS, and middle turbinate(MT) from healthy controls undergoing pituitary tumor surgery]. The results showed that the expression levels of IL-17 and syndecan-1 were upregulated in both NP and UP tissues, but both factors were higher in NP tissues than in UP tissues. There was no significant difference in IL-17 levels between the Eos CRSw NP and non-Eos CRSwNP samples, and syndecan-1 levels were increased in the non-Eos CRSwNP tissues as compared with those in Eos CRSwNP tissues. In all of the groups, there was a close correlation between the expression of IL-17 and syndecan-1 in nasal mucosa epithelial cells, glandular epithelial cells, and inflammatory cells, suggesting that IL-17 and syndecan-1 may play a role, and interact with each other, in the pathogenesis of non-Eos CRSwNP.

Effects of IL-17 on Expression of GRO-α and IL-8 in Fibroblasts from Nasal Polyps

Recent studies indicated that interleukin（IL）-17, growth-related oncogene（GRO）-α and IL-8 play an important role in the pathogenesis of nasal polyps. However, the effects of the increased amount of IL-17 and the production of GRO-α and IL-8 in human nasal polyp fibroblasts are not completely understood. This study aimed to determine the effects of the increased IL-17 on the changes of GRO-α and IL-8 expression in human nasal polyp fibroblasts and further investigate the mechanism of neutrophil infiltration in nasal polyps. Nasal polyp fibroblasts were isolated from six cases of human nasal polyps, and the cells were stimulated with five different concentrations of IL-17. Real-time fluorescence quantitative polymerase chain reaction（RT-PCR） was used to detect the mRNA expression of GRO-α and IL-8. The mRNA of GRO-α and IL-8 was expressed in unstimulated controls and remarkably increased by stimulation with IL-17. Moreover, the levels of GRO-α and IL-8 produced by fibroblasts were increased gradually with the increases in IL-17 concentrations. The present study showed that nasal fibroblasts can produce GRO-α and IL-8, and their production is remarkably enhanced by IL-17 stimulation, thereby clarifying the mechanism of the IL-17 mediated neutrophil infiltration in nasal polyps. These findings might provide a rationale for using IL-17 inhibitors as a treatment for nasal inflammatory diseases such as nasal polyps.

Expression of Tenascin and Fibronectin in Nasal Polyps

To explore the role of tenascin (TN ) and fibronectin (FN ) in the pathophysiology of nasal polyps (NP) ,the expression of TN and FN in NP from 34patients and inferior turbinates from 2 0 patients with deviation of nasal septum was imm unohistochem ically studied.In patients with NP,the relations between expression and histopathological features,eosinophils(EOS) infil- tration,clinical staging and the size of NP were analyzed.Our study showed that the gray score of TN and FN expression was16 3.10± 10 .5 4 and16 3.2 4± 11.5 2 in NP respectively,whereas itwas 175 .4 9± 9.2 9and173.93± 7.92 in inferior turbinates respectively.The difference between two groups was significant (P<0 .0 1) .The expression of TN and FN in edematous type was signifi- cantly stronger than that in cystic and glandular type and fibrous type (P<0 .0 5 ) .The association between FN expression and EOS infiltration was significant (r=- 0 .6 0 ,P <0 .0 1) .The expres- sion of TN and FN did not correlate with clinical staging and size(P>0 .0 5 ) .It was suggested that abnormal ECM m ight contribute to proliferation of epithelia,accum ulation of EOS and edem a formation,thereby causing development of NP.

Dysregulation of E-cadherin in Chronic Rhinosinusitis with Nasal Polyps

E-cadherin is a key epithelial protein and adhesive molecule. This study detected the E-cadherin expression in patients with chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyps (CRSwNP) and controls, and analyzed its possible role in the pathogenesis of CRSwNP. The expression of E-cadherin was detected by using Western blotting and immunohistochemistry in controls and patients with CRSwNP. Computed tomography (CT) scan findings were scored. The results showed that the E-cadherin expression was up-regulated in patients with CRSwNP as compared with controls (P=0.039) and the positive staining was predominantly localized on the epithelial cell membrane. E-cadherin level was correlated negatively with Lund-Mackay scores in patients with CRSwNP (r=–0.604, P=0.005). It is suggested that E-cadherin may be involved in the pathogenesis of CRSwNP and correlated with disease severity.

Utilization of RNA sequencing to investigate olfactory dysfunction in chronic rhinosinusitis without nasal polyps:A pilot study

Objectives:Prior research on olfactory dysfunction in chronic rhinosinusitis(CRS)has focused on patients with polyps and suggests that direct inflammation of the olfactory cleft mucosa plays a contributory role.The purpose of this study was to evaluate gene expression in superior turbinate mucosal specimens,comparing normosmic and dysosmic CRS patients without polyps(CRSsNP).Methods:Tissue samples were obtained from the superior turbinates of patients with CRSsNP at the time of endoscopic sinus surgery.Samples subsequently underwent RNA sequencing and functional analysis to investigate biological pathways associated with differentially expressed genes between dysosmic(n=7)and normosmic(n=4)patients.Results:Differential gene expression analysis comparing dysosmic and normosmic CRSsNP patients showed upregulation of 563 genes and downregulation of 327 genes.Using stringent criteria for multiple comparisons,one upregulated gene(Immediate Early Response 3[IER3])had an false discovery rate(FDR)correction adjustedP value considered statistically significant(P<0.001,fold change 2.69).Reactome functional analysis revealed eight biological pathways significantly different between dysosmic and normosmic patients(P<0.05,FDR correction)including IL-4 and IL-13 signaling,IL-10 signaling,and rhodopsin-like receptors.Conclusions:RNA sequencing of the superior turbinates in patients with CRSsNP can provide valuable information regarding biological pathways and genes involved in olfactory dysfunction.This study supports literature suggesting that Type 2 inflammation may play a role in olfactory dysfunction in at least some patients with CRSsNP.This study also prompts questions regarding the role of IL-10,rhodopsin-like receptors,andIER3 in the pathogenesis of olfactory dysfunction.

Enhanced oxidative stress is associated with tissue neutrophilia and poor steroid response in chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyps

Objective:To analyze the oxidative stress status and its association with tissue neutrophilia and oral steroid response in chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyps(CRSwNP)patients.Methods:The levels of total oxidant status(TOS)were detected in the sinonasal tissues by using specific assay kits.Tissue neutrophil was examined by immunohistochemical staining,and oxidant status index(OSI)was evaluated in polyps tissues,and the messenger RNA(mRNA)levels of superoxide dismutase 2(SOD2),aldehyde dehydrogenase 1(ALDH1A1),and microsomal glutathione S‐transferase 1(MGST1)were examined using quantitative real‐time polymerase chain reaction in the sinonasal tissues.The receiver operating characteristics(ROCs)curve of ALDH1A1,MGST1,and SOD2 mRNA levels were evaluated to determine the steroid response of CRSwNP patients.Results:The levels of TOS and OSI were significantly higher in CRSwNP and CRSsNP than in normal controls,and OSI in polyps tissues was positively associated with tissue neutrophilia and poor steroid response.The ALDH1A1,MGST1,and SOD2 mRNA levels showed comparable accuracy as predictors of poor steroid response indicated by the area under the curve.Conclusion:These findings provided evidence that the increased level of oxidative stress contributes to enhanced tissue neutrophilia and poor steroid response in CRSwNP patients.

Clinical and histopathologic features of biofilm-associated chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyps in Chinese patients

Background Biofilms have given new insights to the understanding of pathogenesis of chronic rhinosinusitis （CRS）. However, the link between biofilms formation and local inflammatory response remains poorly defined in CRS with nasal polys. The aim of this study was to determine the potential association of the presence of biofilms in the nasal mucosal tissues with clinical features in Chinese patients, which had CRS with nasal polyps （CRSwNP）. Methods A total of 19 patients with CRSwNP and 12 patients with non-CRS were subjected to endoscopic surgery and their nasal mucosal tissue specimens were examined histologically and by scanning electron microscopy （SEM）. Their demographic and clinical features were recorded. Results Thirteen （68.4%） out of the 19 specimens from patients with CRSwNP, but none from control patients, were positive for biofilms that displayed typical characteristics of bacterial and fugal structures. The presence of biofilms in the nasal mucosal tissues was associated with significantly greater values of purulent nasal discharge and preoperative Lund-Kennedy scores, higher levels of serum total IgE and percentages of subjects with endoscopic surgery （ESS） history in patients with CRSwNP, and more severe inflammation in the nasal mucosal tissues of patients with CRSwNP. Conclusion Our study demonstrated the presence of biofilms in the nasal mucosal tissues of many patients, contributing to the understanding of the pathogenic process of CRSwNP in Chinese patients.

Local tissue hypoxia and formation of nasal polyps

To explore the response of nasal mucosa epithelial cells to hypoxia in terms of formation of nasal polyps (NP) Methods Epithelial cells of NP and inferior turbinate (IT) were cultured serum fr ee under normal oxygen and hypoxic circumstances with stimulation of IL 1β and TNFα The vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)mRNA and VEGF protein leve ls of the cultured cells were detected using in situ hybridization and ELISA, re spectively Results The expression of VEGF mRNA was significantly higher in epithelial cells of NP t han in IT exposed to pro inflammatory cytokines or hypoxia ( P <0 01) VEGF levels were higher in NP epithelial cells than those of IT ( P <0 01) under hypoxia Conclusion VEGF induced by hypoxia is very important for the early stages of forming polyp s

The serum squamous cell carcinoma antigen level in inverted sinonasal papilloma and nasal polyps patients

Objective:To clarify whether the serum squamous cell carcinoma antigen(SCCA)levels of patients with inverted papilloma(IP)are different from patients with nasal polyps(NP)and rhinitis.Materials and methods:Serum SCCA levels were measured in 30 patients with IP and 30 patients with NP at one day before surgery and seven days after surgery and measured in 28 patients with rhinitis.Results:Elevated serum SCCA levels(>1.5 ng/ml)were found in 80.0%of patients in the IP group,6.7%of patients in the NP group and 14.3%of patients in the rhinitis group,which was a significant difference.The medians of serum SCCA levels in the IP,NP and rhinitis groups were 3.9,0.8 and 1.1 ng/ml,respectively,which was a significant difference.The SCCA level in IP group was not significantly correlated according to Krouse Staging.There was a significant difference in serum SCCA levels between the pre-and postoperative stages in the IP group,at 3.9 and 0.8 ng/ml,respectively,while in the NP group the levels were 0.8 and 1.0 ng/ml,not significantly different.With regard to the IP diagnosis in the IP and NP group based on the SCCA level(>1.5 ng/ml),sensitivity and specificity was 80.0%and 93.3%,respectively.Conclusions:The serum SCCA level in patients with IP was elevated and then it decreased after surgery.This was different from NP and rhinitis patients who mostly had normal levels,which did not change.

Expression of COX-2 and transcription factor CCAAT enhancer binding proteinβin refractory sinusitis with nasal polyps and its significance

Objective To study the expression and significance of COX-2 and C/EBP-βin refractory sinusitis with nasal polyps,and to explore the relationship between them and the recurrence of sinusitis with nasal polyps.Methods The protein expression of COX-2 and C/EBP-βin 20 cases of refractory sinusitis with nasal polyps,20 cases of sinusitis with nasal polyps and 20 cases of normal nasal mucosa were detected by western blot,and the relationship between the two was compared.Results The expression levels of COX-2 and C/EBP-βin refractory sinusitis with nasal polyps were significantly different from those in refractory sinusitis with nasal polyps(P<0.05);The expression levels of COX-2 and C/EBP-βin sinusitis tissues with nasal polyps were significantly different from those in normal nasal mucosa tissues(P<0.05);The expression levels of COX-2 and C/EBP-βin each group were significantly correlated(P<0.05).Conclusions The high expression of COX-2 and C/EBP-βmay be closely related to postoperative recurrence of sinusitis patients with nasal polyps.Both may be used as objective indicators to judge the postoperative follow-up and recurrence tendency of patients with sinusitis with nasal polyps..

基于主观症状评分评估血嗜酸性粒细胞水平指导的鼻息肉激素治疗效果

目的 基于主观症状评分探讨血嗜酸性粒细胞≤0.37×10^(9)/L鼻息肉亚型经口服激素或局部鼻喷激素治疗效果。方法 根据纳入和排除标准,共56例鼻息肉病例纳入研究,其中口服激素组25例,年龄(44.6±15.1)岁,局部鼻喷激素组31例,年龄(40.4±18.0)岁;两组用药时长均为1周,利用鼻窦炎症状视觉模拟量表(VAS)评分和鼻腔鼻窦结局测试22条(sinonasal outcome test-22,SNOT-22)评分,分析口服激素或局部鼻喷激素对鼻息肉亚型(血嗜酸性粒细胞≤0.37×10^(9)/L)的治疗效果。结果 相比于治疗前,两组治疗后鼻塞症状均明显改善(P<0.05);局部鼻喷激素组治疗前、后嗅觉障碍评分提升显著(P<0.05),而口服激素组未见明显差异(P>0.05);口服激素组治疗后SNOT-22评分显著下降(P<0.05),局部鼻喷激素组治疗前、后SNOT-22评分虽未有显著差异,但下降趋势明显;口服激素组治疗后外周血嗜酸性粒细胞数量和比例明显低于局部鼻喷激素组(P<0.05),但两组鼻部症状评分未呈现显著差异(P>0.05)。结论 相较于口服激素治疗,局部鼻喷激素对于治疗血嗜酸性粒细胞≤0.37×10^(9)/L鼻息肉亚型能够简便且安全的达到主观症状改善的目的。

鼻窦CT评分联合特异性免疫球蛋白E和白细胞介素6预测嗜酸粒细胞型慢性鼻窦炎伴鼻息肉患者术后复发风险的价值

目的探讨鼻窦CT评分联合特异性免疫球蛋白E(sIgE)和白细胞介素6(IL-6)对嗜酸粒细胞型慢性鼻窦炎伴鼻息肉(ECRSwNP)患者术后复发风险的预测价值。方法选取2019年1月~2022年1月浙江大学医学院附属杭州西溪医院收治的ECRSwNP患者92例,均行功能性鼻内镜手术,根据术后1年复发情况分为复发组(n=29)和未复发组(n=63)。比较两组鼻窦CT评分,并采用Pearson相关性分析法分析外周血嗜酸粒细胞(Eos)及组织Eos百分比(Eos%)与鼻窦CT评分的相关性;利用Logistic回归分析模型分析术后复发的危险因素,用受试者工作特征曲线(ROC)及曲线下面积(AUC)探究鼻窦CT评分、特异性免疫球蛋白E(sIgE)、IL-6对患者术后复发的预测价值。结果复发组前组筛窦评分、后组筛窦评分、鼻窦CT评分及筛窦与上颌窦评分比值(E/M比)均大于未复发组(P<0.05);组织Eos%与前组筛窦评分、后组筛窦评分及E/M比均呈正相关(r=0.305、0.381、0.642,P均<0.05),外周血Eos%与前组筛窦评分、后组筛窦评分及E/M比亦呈正相关(r=0.272、0.346、0.525,P均<0.05)。复发组哮喘患者占比、鼻塞视觉模拟量表(VAS)评分、组织Eos%、外周血Eos%及sIgE、IL-6水平均高于未复发组(P<0.05),组织中性粒细胞百分比(Neu%)、外周血Neu%则低于未复发组(P<0.05);Logistic分析显示,高水平血清sIgE、IL-6及高E/M比均是影响患者术后复发的危险因素(P<0.05)。ROC曲线分析显示,血清sIgE、IL-6、E/M比及三者联合预测ECRSwNP患者术后复发风险的AUC分别为0.818、0.758、0.696、0.915,三项指标联合预测效能高于单项检测(P<0.05)。结论高水平血清sIgE、IL-6及高E/M比是ECRSwNP患者术后复发的危险因素,三者联合预测患者鼻内镜术后复发风险具有较高临床价值。

2型固有淋巴细胞调控因素的研究进展

2型固有淋巴细胞(group 2 innate lymphoid cells,ILC2s)是一群不表达谱系发育因子Lineage,不具有抗原特异性的特殊免疫细胞,能够在IL-33和IL-25的刺激下产生大量IL-5和IL-13,介导2型先天性免疫应答,在变应性和炎症性疾病中发挥重要作用。近年来ILC2s不同细胞亚型以及复杂的调控因子网络逐渐被发现和证实,这些研究结果拓展了对先天性免疫应答的认识,尤其是ILC2s参与变应原或病原体介导的气道炎症反应,为临床治疗提供了新的思路。

Protein kinase C in proliferation and infiltration of eosinophils in nasal polyp

Objective To explore the significance of protein kinase C (PKC) in proliferation and infiltration of eosinophils in nasal polyps. Methods With in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry staining methods,PKC,pro-apoptotic,and anti-apoptotic gene (Bax,bcl-2 ) expressions were measured in nasal polyp tissues from 26 patients and inferior turbinate mucosa tissues (ITMTs) from 20 healthy persons. The May-Grünwald-Giemsa (MGG) staining method was used to identify eosinophils. Results In eosinophils,the positive cell expressive rates of Bcl-2 mRNA and its protein were significantly higher in the group with nasal polyps than in the ITMT group ( P <0.01). Although the positive cell expressive rate of Bax mRNA and associated protein were a little higher in the group with nasal polyp tissues than in the ITMT group,the difference was not significant ( P >0.05). There was PKC expression in the eosinophils of 26 cases of nasal polyps,but occasional PKC expression in 7 of 20 ITMT cases. In the two groups,PKC positive cell expression was significantly different,and the expression of PKC and bcl-2 mRNA as well as associated protein in eosinophils of nasal polyps showed a remarkably positive relationship ( r 1=0.0875,r 2=0.0823,P <0.01). Conclusions Increased PKC expression in eosinophils of nasal polyp tissues is closely associated with apoptosis inhibition,and it is presumed that eosinophil apoptosis inhibition in nasal polyp tissues is obtained by activation of the PKC signal transduction pathway.

Systematic review of outcomes for endoscopic sinus surgery and subsequent aspirin desensitization in aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease

Objective:To review and evaluate outcomes of patients with aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease(AERD)following endoscopic sinus surgery and subsequent aspirin desensitization.Methods:Electronic searches of OVID MEDLINE(1948 to September 10,2019),EMBASE(1980 to September 10,2019),and PubMed were performed on September 10,2019.A systematic review of the literature was performed using the 2009 PRISMA guidelines.Studies with both preoperative and postoperative data for patients with AERD who underwent sinus surgery and aspirin desensitization were considered appropriate for inclusion.Publications were written in English and included patients aged 18 years or older.Results:Six studies met inclusion criteria for this systematic review.The primary outcome measure was change in symptom profile measured by patient-reported quality of life scores.The results demonstrate statistically significant improvement in symptoms following endoscopic sinus surgery,with sustained improvement following aspirin desensitization.Revision surgery rates were significantly lower in patients maintained on aspirin therapy.Conclusion:This review suggests that surgery followed by aspirin desensitization results in improvement in both subjective and objective outcome measures.The adjunctive use of aspirin desensitization allows for long-term stability in symptom scores.Recurrence of polyps and worsening symptoms requiring revision surgery occurs when aspirin maintenance therapy is inter-rupted.

Immunomodulators in chronic rhinosinusitis

Objective::To provide new insight into how chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS) is conceptualized and treated with a focus on immunomodulator therapy.Data sources::Pubmed, Medline, and Embase.Methods::A current review of the evidence is provided for immunomodulators investigated for treatment of CRS with nasal polyps (CRSwNP).Results::Biologic therapies targeting IgE, IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13 for the treatment of CRSwNP have shown promise and are currently in phase 3 trials. Anti-immunoglobin E (IgE) therapy with omalizumab was assessed in 6 studies, anti-interleukin (IL)-5 therapy in 3 studies (2 mepolizumab, 1 reslizumab) and anti IL-4/IL-13 (dupilumab) therapy in one study. Studied outcomes varied, but the majority of trials identified clinical benefit of therapy over placebo. Other potential targets include thymic stromal lymphopoetin (TSLP), IL-25, IL-33, and sialic acidbinding immunoglobulin-type lectin (Siglec)-8. Small molecule drugs that target the dysregulation of the immune system in CRS are also being investigated for their immunomodulatory effects on inflammation.Conclusion::Immunomodulator therapies for CRS currently in development will likely provide another therapeutic option for patients who have severe disease unresponsive to corticosteroids and surgery. Targeted monoclonal antibody therapies have shown encouraging results and phase 3 trials are underway. IL-4/IL-13 inhibition has shown the most promise to date. Further larger, well-designed trials are needed to improve understanding of these molecules and to offer endotype-driven therapies in the management of CRS. None of these therapeutics have shown long-term immunomodulation when discontinued and therefore further investigation into the pathomechanism of disease continues to be needed.

P-glycoprotein and chronic rhinosinusitis

Chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS) is a heterogeneous definition that includes different disease states that usually are associated with abnormal inflammatory responses. Besides being prevalent, the mechanisms involved in its pathogenesis are not clear and there are few therapeutic options with tolerable side effects. P-glycoprotein (P-gp) is an efflux pump responsible of extruding xenobiotics and cellular metabolites from multiple cell types. It has been widely studied in the cancer field, due to its ability to confer resistance to chemotherapy. It also promotes Type 2 helper T-cell polarizing cytokine secretion in CRS and may represent a potential target to differentiate subtypes of CRS and personalize treatment. This state-of-the-art review explores current knowledge on the participation of P-gp in the pathogenesis of CRS, the P-gp inhibition as a novel targeted therapeutic strategy and the exosomal P-gp test, a non-invasive biomarker that can represent an important advance in the field of rhinology.

Current understanding of allergic fungal rhinosinusitis

Studying the pathophysiology of allergic fungal rhinosinusitis (AFRS) has proved challenging. While this clinical entity is easily distinguishable based on the clinical criteria set forth by Bent and Kuhn twenty-five years ago, studies examining type 2 inflammatory profiles in AFRS can make it seem more alike other CRS subtypes than it is different. Still, evolving research seems to clearly delineate this subtype from others in CRS. This review will critically evaluate the evolution of research examining the pathophysiology of AFRS and will conclude with a summary of the special considerations in the management of this fascinating disease.

Appropriate extent of surgery for aspirinexacerbated respiratory disease

The current literature lacks strong guidelines regarding surgical management of patients with aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease(AERD),who present with the clinical triad of chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyposis(CRSwNP),bronchial asthma,and aspirin/nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug intolerance.To further define the effectiveness of sinus surgery in treating AERD patients,this review article discusses current evidence regarding outcomes associated with more extensive surgery,the benefits of frontal sinus surgery on polyposis,and the role of Draf III intervention.Numerous studies suggest that Draf III frontal sinusotomy may be an efficacious early intervention due to increased neo-ostial patency and subsequent distribution of topical therapies.Future studies that further investigate the efficacy and safety of extensive surgery in AERD patients are warranted.