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Effect of the mixing of s-wave and chiral p-wave pairings on electrical shot noise properties of normal metal/superconductor tunnel junctions
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作者 胡雨辰 胡梁宾 《Chinese Physics B》 SCIE EI CAS CSCD 2024年第7期538-545,共8页
We study theoretically the electrical shot noise properties of tunnel junctions between a normal metal and a superconductor with the mixture of singlet s-wave and chiral triplet p-wave pairing due to broken inversion ... We study theoretically the electrical shot noise properties of tunnel junctions between a normal metal and a superconductor with the mixture of singlet s-wave and chiral triplet p-wave pairing due to broken inversion symmetry. We investigate how the shot noise properties vary as the relative amplitude between the two parity components in the pairing potential is changed. It is demonstrated that some characteristics of the electrical shot noise properties of such tunnel junctions may depend sensitively on the relative amplitude between the two parity components in the pairing potential, and some significant changes may occur in the electrical shot noise properties when the relative amplitude between the two parity components is varied from the singlet s-wave pairing dominated regime to the chiral triplet p-wave pairing dominated regime. In the chiral triplet p-wave pairing dominated regime, the ratio of noise power to electric current is close to 2e both in the in-gap and in the out-gap region. In the singlet s-wave pairing dominated regime, the value of this ratio is close to 4e in the inner gap region but may reduce to about 2e in the outer gap region as the relative amplitude of the chiral triplet pairing component is increased. The variations of the differential shot noise with the bias voltage also exhibit some significantly different features in different regimes. Such different features can serve as useful diagnostic tools for the determination of the relative magnitude of the two parity components in the pairing potential. 展开更多
关键词 normal metal/superconductor tunnel junctions shot noise mixing of s-wave and chiral p-wave pairing spin–orbit coupling
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Shot noise analysis on corrosion behavior of zinc alloy (ZnAl4Cul) under dry-wet cycles 被引量:3
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作者 CHEN An-na CAO Fa-he +4 位作者 LIU Wen-juan ZHENG Li-yun ZHANG Zhao ZHANG Jian-qing CAO Chu-nan 《Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China》 SCIE EI CAS CSCD 2012年第1期228-240,共13页
The corrosion behaviors of zinc alloy (ZnAl4Cul) in 3.5% (mass fraction) NaCl, 7.3% (mass fraction) Na2SO4 and simulated acid rain solutions were investigated using electrochemical measurements. The potential no... The corrosion behaviors of zinc alloy (ZnAl4Cul) in 3.5% (mass fraction) NaCl, 7.3% (mass fraction) Na2SO4 and simulated acid rain solutions were investigated using electrochemical measurements. The potential noise during dry-wet cycle was monitored and analyzed by fast Fourier transform (FFT), fast wavelet transform (FWT), shot noise theory and stochastic theory. Cumulative probability curves of event frequency fn indicate that the corrosion events in the dry cycles are greater than those in the wet cycles. Uniform corrosion was observed in the NaCl solution compared with more localized corrosion in the Na2SO4 solution, which is evidenced by FWT and SEM. Conditional events generation rate r(t) for diffusion controlled reactions decreases with increasing the time. r(t) values for uniform corrosion and diffusion controlled process are the largest in the wet cycle in 3.5% NaCl solution. The values of r(t) for pitting corrosion in Na2SO4 solution are observed to become large during spraying periods, and r(t) for pitting corrosion has the largest value in the Na2SO4 solution. The intergranular corrosion of zinc is serious in simulated acid rain solution. 展开更多
关键词 electrochemical noise shot noise analysis dry-wet cycle zinc alloy
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Spin-Polarized Tunneling Spectroscopy and Shot Noise in Ferromagnet/f-WaveSuperconductor Junctions 被引量:1
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作者 DONGZheng-Chao 《Communications in Theoretical Physics》 SCIE CAS CSCD 2004年第5期775-780,共6页
The tunneling spectroscopy and shot noise in ferromagnet/insulator/triplet-superconductor (FM/I/triplet- SC) structures are studied by taking into account the roughness interracial barrier and exchange splitting in th... The tunneling spectroscopy and shot noise in ferromagnet/insulator/triplet-superconductor (FM/I/triplet- SC) structures are studied by taking into account the roughness interracial barrier and exchange splitting in the FM. For the triplet-SG of Sr_2RuO_4,we consider two-dimensional f-wave order parameter symmetries having nodes within the RuO_2 plane,which reasonably describe both thermodynamic and thermal conductivity data.It is shown that the ferromagnetic exchange splitting gives rise to a decrease in the differential conductance,the average current,and the shot noise power,while the noise power-to-current ratio is increased;the interface roughness is found to lead to a decrease in the differential conductance and the average current,and an increase in the noise power-to-current ratio. 展开更多
关键词 tunneling spectroscopy shot noise FERROMAGNET f-wave superconductor
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A Double Shot Noise Process and Its Application in Insurance 被引量:2
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作者 Angelos Dassios Jiwook Jang 《Journal of Mathematics and System Science》 2012年第2期82-93,共12页
The authors consider a compound Cox model of insurance risk with the additional economic assumption of a positive interest rate. As the authors note a duality result relating a compound Cox model of insurance risk wit... The authors consider a compound Cox model of insurance risk with the additional economic assumption of a positive interest rate. As the authors note a duality result relating a compound Cox model of insurance risk with a positive interest rate and a double shot noise process, the authors analyze a double shot noise process systematically for its theoretical distributional properties, based on the piecewise deterministic Markov process theory, and the martingale methodology. The authors also obtain the moments of aggregate accumulated/discounted claims where the claim arrival process follows a Cox process with shot noise intensity. Removing the parameters in a double shot noise process gradually, the authors show that it becomes a compound Cox process with shot noise intensity, a single shot noise process and a compound Poisson process. Numerical comparisons are shown between the moments (i.e. means and variances) of a compound Poisson model and their counterparts of a compound Cox model with/without considering a positive interest rate. For that purpose, the authors assume that claim sizes and primary event sizes follow an exponential distribution, respectively. 展开更多
关键词 Double shot noise process a Cox process stochastic intensity and time value of claims aggregate accumulated/discounted claims.
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Effects of interface bound states on the shot noise in normal metal–low-dimensional Rashba semiconductor tunnel junctions with induced s-wave pairing potential
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作者 Wen-Xiang Chen Rui-Qiang Wang Liang-Bin Hu 《Chinese Physics B》 SCIE EI CAS CSCD 2019年第5期268-275,共8页
We consider the effects of interface bound states on the electrical shot noise in tunnel junctions formed between normal metals and one-dimensional(1 D) or two-dimensional(2 D) Rashba semiconductors with proximity-ind... We consider the effects of interface bound states on the electrical shot noise in tunnel junctions formed between normal metals and one-dimensional(1 D) or two-dimensional(2 D) Rashba semiconductors with proximity-induced s-wave pairing potential. We investigate how the shot noise properties vary as the interface bound state is evolved from a non-zero energy bound state to a zero-energy bound state. We show that in both 1 D and 2 D tunnel junctions, the ratio of the noise power to the charge current in the vicinity of zero bias voltage may be enhanced significantly due to the induction of the midgap interface bound state. But as the interface bound state evolves from a non-zero energy bound state to a zero-energy bound state, this ratio tends to vanish completely at zero bias voltage in 1 D tunnel junctions, while in 2 D tunnel junctions it decreases smoothly to the usual classical Schottky value for the normal state. Some other important aspects of the shot noise properties in such tunnel junctions are also clarified. 展开更多
关键词 INTERFACE BOUND state tunnel junction shot noise
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Cryogenic amplifier with low input-referred voltage noise calibrated by shot noise measurement
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作者 Wuhao Yang Jian Wei 《Chinese Physics B》 SCIE EI CAS CSCD 2018年第6期207-212,共6页
A low-noise cryogenic amplifier for the bandwidth from 100 kHz to 2 MHz with commercially available components is presented. The amplifier is mounted on the cold finger of our home-made liquid helium dipstick. The inp... A low-noise cryogenic amplifier for the bandwidth from 100 kHz to 2 MHz with commercially available components is presented. The amplifier is mounted on the cold finger of our home-made liquid helium dipstick. The input imp√edance of the amplifier is 2 k?. The input-referred voltage noise of the amplifier at approximately 2 MHz is around 1 n V/Hz^(1/2). We demonstrate the performance of the amplifier by measuring shot noise on the Al/AlOx/Al tunneling junction with resistance about 17 k? at liquid helium temperature. 展开更多
关键词 cryogenic amplifier shot noise shadow evaporation tunneling junction
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Shot noise of the spin inelastic tunneling through a quantum dot with single molecule-magnet
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作者 常博 梁九卿 《Chinese Physics B》 SCIE EI CAS CSCD 2011年第1期601-608,共8页
We have studied the quantum fluctuations of inelastic spin-electron scattering in quantum dot with an embedded biaxial single molecule-magnet and particularly investigated the zero-frequency shot noise and Fano factor... We have studied the quantum fluctuations of inelastic spin-electron scattering in quantum dot with an embedded biaxial single molecule-magnet and particularly investigated the zero-frequency shot noise and Fano factor in different magnetic fields. It is found that the shot noise and Fano factor exhibit a stepwise behaviour as bias increases in the presence of interaction between the electron and molecule-magnet for a weak magnetic field. As magnetic field becomes strong, a dip is displayed in the shot-noise-bias curve due to the suppression of inelastic shot noise caused by the quantum tunneling of magnetisation. Because of the spontaneous inelastic tunneling at zero bias, a small shot noise occurs, which results in the case of Fano factor F ≥ 1. Moreover, our results show that the sweeping speed can also influence the shot noise and Fano factor obviously. 展开更多
关键词 quantum dot shot noise molecular magnet quantum tunneling of spin
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Coupling strength effect on shot noise in boron devices
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作者 李桂琴 郭永 《Chinese Physics B》 SCIE EI CAS CSCD 2013年第11期513-517,共5页
The shot noise properties in boron devices are investigated with a tight-binding model and the non-equilibrium Green's function. It is found that the shot noise and Fano factors can be tuned by changing the structure... The shot noise properties in boron devices are investigated with a tight-binding model and the non-equilibrium Green's function. It is found that the shot noise and Fano factors can be tuned by changing the structures, the size, and the coupling strength. The shot noise is suppressed momentarily as we switch on the bias voltage, and the electron correlation is significant. The Fano factors are more sensitive to the ribbon width than to the ribbon length in the full coupling context. In the weak-coupling context, the Fano factors are almost invariant with the increase of length and width over a wide bias range. 展开更多
关键词 shot noise boron devices coupling strength
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Shot noise in electron transport through a double quantum dot:a master equation approach
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作者 欧阳仕华 林志恒 游建强 《Chinese Physics B》 SCIE EI CAS CSCD 2010年第5期195-204,共10页
We study shot noise in tunneling current through a double quantum dot connected to two electric leads. We derive two master equations in the occupation-state basis and the eigenstate basis to describe the electron dyn... We study shot noise in tunneling current through a double quantum dot connected to two electric leads. We derive two master equations in the occupation-state basis and the eigenstate basis to describe the electron dynamics. The approach based on the occupation-state basis, despite being widely used in many previous studies, is valid only when the interdot coupling strength is much smaller than the energy difference between the two dots. In contrast, the calculations using the eigenstate basis are valid for an arbitrary interdot coupling. Using realistic model parameters, we demonstrate that the predicted currents and shot-noise properties from the two approaches are significantly different when the interdot coupling is not small. Furthermore, properties of the shot noise predicted using the eigenstate basis successfully reproduce qualitative features found in a recent experiment. 展开更多
关键词 double quantum dot master equation approach shot noise in tunneling current
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Multi-step shot noise spectrum induced by a local large spin
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作者 牛鹏斌 石云龙 +1 位作者 孙祝 聂一行 《Chinese Physics B》 SCIE EI CAS CSCD 2015年第12期512-516,共5页
We use non-equilibrium Green's function method to analyze the shot noise spectrum of artificial single molecular magnets(ASMM) model in the strong spin–orbit coupling limit in sequential tunneling regime, mainly f... We use non-equilibrium Green's function method to analyze the shot noise spectrum of artificial single molecular magnets(ASMM) model in the strong spin–orbit coupling limit in sequential tunneling regime, mainly focusing on the effects of local large spin. In the linear response regime, the shot noise shows 2S + 1 peaks and is strongly spin-dependent.In the nonlinear response regime, one can observe 2S + 1 steps in shot noise and Fano factor. In these steps one can see the significant enhancement effect due to the spin-dependent multi-channel process of local large spin, which reduces electron correlations. 展开更多
关键词 artificial single molecular magnet Hubbard operator Green's function shot noise
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The Distribution of Multiple Shot Noise Process and Its Integral
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作者 Jiwook Jang 《Applied Mathematics》 2014年第3期478-489,共12页
In this paper, we study multiple shot noise process and its integral. We analyse these two processes systematically for their theoretical distributions, based on the piecewise deterministic Markov process theory devel... In this paper, we study multiple shot noise process and its integral. We analyse these two processes systematically for their theoretical distributions, based on the piecewise deterministic Markov process theory developed by Davis [1] and the martingale methodology used by Dassios and Jang [2]. The analytic expressions of the Laplace transforms of these two processes are presented. We also obtain the multivariate probability generating function for the number of jumps, for which we use a multivariate Cox process. To derive these, we assume that the Cox processes jumps, intensity jumps and primary event jumps are independent of each other. Using the Laplace transform of the integral of multiple shot noise process, we obtain the tail of multivariate distributions of the first jump times of the Cox processes, i.e. the multivariate survival functions. Their numerical calculations and other relevant joint distributions’ numerical values are also presented. 展开更多
关键词 MULTIPLE shot noise PROCESS and ITS INTEGRAL MULTIVARIATE Cox PROCESS Piecewise Deterministic Markov PROCESS MARTINGALE Methodology MULTIVARIATE Survival Functions
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Measuring Tail Dependence for Aggregate Collateral Losses Using Bivariate Compound Shot-Noise Cox Process
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作者 Jiwook Jang Genyuan Fu 《Applied Mathematics》 2012年第12期2191-2204,共14页
In this paper, we introduce tail dependene measures for collateral losses from catastrophic events. To calculate these measures, we use bivariate compound process where a Cox process with shot noise intensity is used ... In this paper, we introduce tail dependene measures for collateral losses from catastrophic events. To calculate these measures, we use bivariate compound process where a Cox process with shot noise intensity is used to count collateral losses. A homogeneous Poisson process is also examined as its counterpart for the case where the catastrophic loss frequency rate is deterministic. Joint Laplace transform of the distribution of the aggregate collateral losses is derived and joint Fast Fourier transform is used to obtain the joint distributions of aggregate collateral losses. For numerical illustrations, a member of Farlie-Gumbel-Morgenstern copula with exponential margins is used. The figures of the joint distributions of collateral losses, their contours and numerical calculations of risk measures are also provided. 展开更多
关键词 AGGREGATE COLLATERAL LOSSES BIVARIATE COMPOUND Cox PROCESS shot noise PROCESS Farlie-Gumbel-Morgenstern Copula Tail Dependence Joint Fast Fourier Transform
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Shot Noise in Ferromagnetic Superconductor Tunnel Junctions
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作者 LI Xiao-Wei 《Communications in Theoretical Physics》 SCIE CAS CSCD 2006年第2期369-372,共4页
In this paper, the superconducting order parameter and the energy spectrum of the Bogoliubov excitations are obtained from the Bogoliubov-de Gennes (BdG) equation for a ferromagnetic superconductor (FS). Taking in... In this paper, the superconducting order parameter and the energy spectrum of the Bogoliubov excitations are obtained from the Bogoliubov-de Gennes (BdG) equation for a ferromagnetic superconductor (FS). Taking into account the rough interface scattering effect, we calculate the shot noise and the differential conductance of the normalmetal insulator ferromagnetic superconductor junction. It is shown that the exchange energy Eh in FS can lead to splitting of the differential shot noise peaks and the conductance peaks. The energy difference between the two splitting peaks is equal to 2Eh. The rough interface scattering strength results in descent of conductance peaks and the shot noise-to-current ratio but increases the shot noise. 展开更多
关键词 ferromagnetic superconductor N/I/FS junction shot noise the rough interface scattering
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Photon-assisted and spin-dependent shot noise in magnetic-field tunable ZnSe/Zn1-xMnxSe structures
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作者 Chun-Lei Li Yong Guo +1 位作者 Xiao-Ming Wang Yuan Lv 《Chinese Physics B》 SCIE EI CAS CSCD 2017年第2期406-411,共6页
We have investigated the photon-assisted shot noise properties in the magnetic field tunable heterostructures. Transport properties of the model structure are strongly dependent on the oscillatory field and the magnet... We have investigated the photon-assisted shot noise properties in the magnetic field tunable heterostructures. Transport properties of the model structure are strongly dependent on the oscillatory field and the magnetic field. In this structure,electrons can absorb or emit one or multi-photons to reach the quasi-bound state. As a result, the transmission properties are affected considerably by photon-assisted tunneling and these features cause the nontrivial variations in the shot noise and Fano factor. It is found that the shot noise becomes spin-dependent and can be modulated not only by the magnetic field, but also by the oscillatory field. Both the spin-up and spin-down components of the shot noise can be greatly suppressed by the magnetic field, and can also be drastically enhanced by the harmonically driven field. Furthermore,with increasing external magnetic field, it is important to note that the enhanced intensity is decreased, even suppressed.These results suggest another method to suppress the shot noise via modulating the oscillatory field at a diluted-magneticsemiconductors/semiconductor structure. 展开更多
关键词 shot noise electronic transport photon-assisted
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Shot Noise of the Conductance through a Superconducting Barrier in Graphene
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作者 刘汨 朱瑞 《Chinese Physics Letters》 SCIE CAS CSCD 2015年第12期121-125,共5页
We investigate the conductance and shot noise properties of quasi-particle transport through a superconducting barrier in graphene. Based on the Blonder, Tinkham, and Klapwijk (BTK) formulation, the theory to invest... We investigate the conductance and shot noise properties of quasi-particle transport through a superconducting barrier in graphene. Based on the Blonder, Tinkham, and Klapwijk (BTK) formulation, the theory to investigate the transport properties in the superconductive graphene is developed. In comparison, we consider the two cases which are the transport in the presence and absence of the specular Andreev reflection. It is shown that the conductance and shot noise exhibit essentially different features in the two cases. It is found that the shot noise is suppressed as a result of more tunneling channels contributing to the transport when the superconducting gate is applied. The dependences of the shot noise behavior on both the potential strength and the width of the superconducting barrier in the two cases are different. In the presence of the specular Andreev reflection, the shot noise spectrum is more sensitive to both the potential strength and the width of the superconducting barrier. In both cases, total transmission occurs at a certain parameter setting, which contributes greatly to the conductance and suppresses the shot noise at the same time. 展开更多
关键词 shot noise of the Conductance through a Superconducting Barrier in Graphene SG
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Shot Noise Suppression in a Quantum Point Contact with Short Channel Length
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作者 JEONG Heejun 《Chinese Physics Letters》 SCIE CAS CSCD 2015年第7期164-167,共4页
An experimental study on the current shot noise of a quantum point contact with short channel length is reported. The experimentally measured maximum energy level spacing between the ground and the first excited state... An experimental study on the current shot noise of a quantum point contact with short channel length is reported. The experimentally measured maximum energy level spacing between the ground and the first excited state of the device reached up to 7.5meV, probably due to the hard wall confinement by using shallow electron gas and sharp point contact geometry. The two-dimensionM non-equilibrium shot noise contour map shows noise suppression characteristics in a wide range of bias voltage. Fano factor analysis indicates spin-polarized transport through a short quantum point contact. 展开更多
关键词 LENGTH shot noise Suppression in a Quantum Point Contact with Short Channel Length
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Analytical Fitting Functions of Finite Sample Discrete Entropies of White Gaussian Noise 被引量:5
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作者 杨正瓴 冯勇 +2 位作者 熊定方 陈曦 张军 《Transactions of Tianjin University》 EI CAS 2015年第4期299-303,共5页
In order to find the convergence rate of finite sample discrete entropies of a white Gaussian noise(WGN), Brown entropy algorithm is numerically tested.With the increase of sample size, the curves of these finite samp... In order to find the convergence rate of finite sample discrete entropies of a white Gaussian noise(WGN), Brown entropy algorithm is numerically tested.With the increase of sample size, the curves of these finite sample discrete entropies are asymptotically close to their theoretical values.The confidence intervals of the sample Brown entropy are narrower than those of the sample discrete entropy calculated from its differential entropy, which is valid only in the case of a small sample size of WGN. The differences between sample Brown entropies and their theoretical values are fitted by two rational functions exactly, and the revised Brown entropies are more efficient. The application to the prediction of wind speed indicates that the variances of resampled time series increase almost exponentially with the increase of resampling period. 展开更多
关键词 ENTROPY non-stationary time series prediction WHITE GAUSSIAN noise SAMPLE size wind speed
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Source-Generated Noise Suppression Using the Singular Value Decomposition 被引量:1
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作者 YuriyK.Tyapkin NaumYa.Marmalyevskyy +1 位作者 ZenonV.Gomyak CaiGang 《Petroleum Science》 SCIE CAS CSCD 2005年第2期57-65,共9页
Source-generated noise, such as air, refracted, guided waves, near-surface multiples, and radial ground roll, is one of the most challenging problems in the land seismic method. The interference of the noise with refl... Source-generated noise, such as air, refracted, guided waves, near-surface multiples, and radial ground roll, is one of the most challenging problems in the land seismic method. The interference of the noise with reflection events often results in a distorted representation of the subsurface and gives rise to interpretation uncertainties. To suppress the noise, geophysicists have devised various techniques in both acquisition and processing stages. Conventional processing methods, such as high-pass, f - k and hyperbolic velocity filters, however, have certain disadvantages when handling actual seismic data. In this study, we present a new hybrid method combining singular value decomposition (SVD) with a special linear transformation of the common-shot gather. The method is aimed at effectively removing the noise while minimizing harm to the signal. As compared with other methods, the SVD-based one gives a denser approximation to source-generated noise before its subtraction from the seismic data, due to the use of more appropriate basis functions. The special transformation applied in advance to the data is intended to align the source-generated noise events horizontally and thus to benefit the subsequent SVD. The effectiveness of the method in suppressing source-generated noise is demonstrated with a synthetic data set. Emphasis is put on the comparison of the performance of the method with that of conventional f - k filtering. 展开更多
关键词 Source-generated noise surface waves singular value decomposition eigenimage common-shot gather
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Noise in a coupling electromagnetic detecting system for high frequency gravitational waves
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作者 李瑾 李芳昱 仲元红 《Chinese Physics B》 SCIE EI CAS CSCD 2009年第3期922-926,共5页
This paper discusses the basic categories of noise in detecting high frequency gravitational waves in the microwave band (-0.1-10GHz), which contain shot noise from the laser and the thermal radiation photons, therm... This paper discusses the basic categories of noise in detecting high frequency gravitational waves in the microwave band (-0.1-10GHz), which contain shot noise from the laser and the thermal radiation photons, thermal noise from statistical fluctuation of the thermal photons and fluctuation of the temperature, radiation press noise on the fractal membrane, the noise caused by the scattering of the Gaussian Beam (GB) in the detecting tube and noise in the microwave radiometers. The analysis shows that a reasonable signal-to-noise ratio may be achieved for a detecting device with the fixed power of GB (105 W), only when the temperature of the environment is no more than T=I K, and the optimal length of the microwave radiometers is about 0.3 m. 展开更多
关键词 high frequency gravitational waves shot noise radiation press noise fractal membrane
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Signal-to-noise ratio of Raman signal measured by multichannel detectors
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作者 Xue-Lu Liu Yu-Chen Leng +2 位作者 Miao-Ling Lin Xin Cong Ping-Heng Tan 《Chinese Physics B》 SCIE EI CAS CSCD 2021年第9期31-44,共14页
Raman spectroscopy has been widely used to characterize the physical properties of two-dimensional materials(2DMs).The signal-to-noise ratio(SNR or S/N ratio)of Raman signal usually serves as an important indicator to... Raman spectroscopy has been widely used to characterize the physical properties of two-dimensional materials(2DMs).The signal-to-noise ratio(SNR or S/N ratio)of Raman signal usually serves as an important indicator to evaluate the instrumental performance rather than Raman intensity itself.Multichannel detectors with outstanding sensitivity,rapid acquisition speed and low noise level have been widely equipped in Raman instruments for the measurement of Raman signal.In this mini-review,we first introduce the recent advances of Raman spectroscopy of 2DMs.Then we take the most commonly used CCD detector and IGA array detector as examples to overview the various noise sources in Raman measurements and analyze their potential influences on SNR of Raman signal in experiments.This overview can contribute to a better understanding on the SNR of Raman signal and the performance of multichannel detector for numerous researchers and instrumental design for industry,as well as offer practical strategies for improving spectral quality in routine measurement. 展开更多
关键词 multichannel detectors signal-to-noise ratio dark noise shot noise
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