Nuclear Fusion Research and Development Need New Relativistic Mass and Energy Corrections Given by the Information Relativity Theory

Hundred years after the conjecture of the British astronomer Eddington that the sun is powered by nuclear fusion of hydrogen, new physics theory may help make energy harvesting by nuclear fusion soon a reality. Researchers as well as investors funding fusion megaprojects are asked to deal with new relativistic corrections for mass and energy proposed by Suleiman in his Information Relativity Theory (IRT). These corrections were calculated in this contribution. It will help to decide whether a venture will be successful and to save big investments when in doubt. The assumed optimal kinetic energy for controlled nuclear fusion must be corrected to a somewhat higher level. At very high kinetic energy in the upper GeV range, it remains not enough baryonic mass to be transformed in energy. The fusion probability faded out to zero already at the golden limit of the recession speed of between target nucleon and projectile nucleon. Cold nuclear fusion, if ever possible, is recommended for protons rather than deuterons at highest experimental possible temperatures around 1000 (K) and needs fine-tuned kinetic nucleon energy. It would be also of interest whether a golden ratio based nuclear fuel confinement chamber could be beneficial. In this connection, also cold nuclear fusion setups should be discussed. Nature is governed by the golden ratio and criticality of physical systems influenced by it, and nuclear physics is not an exception. Computer simulations of the underlying controlled nuclear fusion processes should gain profit from IRT corrected starting information and may tackle anew possible low energy nuclear transmutations considering the wave-like dark components of matter and energy.

Explanation of Cold Nuclear Fusion and Biotransmutations

Low energy nuclear reactions are possible in condensed matter because of image forces. They result from induced charges at the surface of metals or very polarizable media. The height and width of the Coulomb barrier in free space can thus be reduced. Nuclear fusion requires also the formation of a compound nucleus in one of its excited states, but two deuterons yield an α particle that has 2 excited states. They are respectively accessible at high or low energies. Since the reduction of the Coulomb barrier depends on the local curvature of the interface, cold fusion becomes autocatalytic, but heat production is controllable. Even microbes, plants and animals can produce transmutations. They are also due to image forces. This solves a basic problem in nuclear physics and there are possible applications: facilitated synthesis of superheavy elements and development of a new type of energy sources. They are moderate, but safe.

Nuclear fusion from Coulomb explosions of deuterated methane clusters subjected to ultraintense femtosecond laser pulses

This paper reports that Coulomb explosions taken place in the experiment of heteronuclear deuterated methane clusters （（CD4）n） in a gas jet subjected to intense femtoseeond laser pulses （170 mJ, 70 fs） have led to table-top laser driven DD nuclear fusion. The clusters produced in supersonic expansion had an average size of about 5 nm in radius and the laser intensity used was 3 × 10^17 W/cm^2.The measured maximum and average energies of deuterons produced in the laser-cluster interaction were 60 and 13.5 keV, respectively. Prom DD collisions of energetic deuterons, a yield of 2.5（±0.4） × 10^4 fusion neutrons of 2.45 MeV per shot was realized, giving rise to a neutron production efficiency of about 1.5 × 10^5 per joule of incident laser pulse energy. Theoretical calculations were performed and a fairly good agreement of the calculated neutron yield with that obtained from the present experiment was found.

Nanomaterials Driven Magnetic Nuclear Fusion Confinement Approaches(A Technical Memorandum)

Nuclear energy driven magnetic confinement via donut shape device known as Tokamak,a toroidal apparatus,for producing controlled fusion reactions in hot plasma,was originally suggested as a basic yet more promising fusion reactor.Today the more innovative version of this apparatus that is known as an ITER(international thermonuclear experimental reactor)shows a way toward MCF(magnetic confinement fusion)of hot plasma goal by satisfying Lawson’s Criteria to some degree of achievement.However,since this fusion driven reactor of hot plasma needs to operate at almost 150 million Celsius,the internal material of this reactor is a matter of concern for scientists that are involved with its fabrication.Uniqueness of nanomaterials from the point of view of physical and chemical properties is suggested as a possible potential application for this special and innovative reactor for a nuclear fusion device.Convergence of nanotechnology in study of new generation of materials of this kind can shape the path for various technological developments and a large variety of disciplines,including MCF driven plasma of hot fusion as well.This short TM(technical memorandum)written by these two authors will cover this aspect of technology in a holistic way and the more granular level is left to the reader of this TM to investigate further.

Getting Free Heat Energy Based on Cavitation and Nuclear Fusion according to Revinov＇s Pilot Plants

In this report, the author describes and compares two innovative processes for producing thermal energy based on cavitation and nuclear fusion reactions in the indoor environment. Experiments conducted in the laboratory IHS （Intensive Heating System） of IE ＂Revinov N. M.＂ indicate that the process of lasso-vortex cavitation, which generates by means of an electric arc obtained HV-EI, gas-liquid plasma state in the EHH-CTC （electro-hydraulic heater with cavitation thermal camera） is not inferior and sometimes even superior in heat transfer to NF-AC （nuclear fusion reactions in ambient conditions）.

Cold Nuclear Fusion in the Unitary Quantum Theory

The interaction of the charged particles in the new Unitary Quantum theory isconsidered. It is shown that the distance of approachment of deuterons to each other verystrongly depends on the phase of the wave function and not only upon the energy. This thesis isnot discussed in the conventional quantum theory. It can easily explain the experiments on thecold nuclear fusion.

MY CONTRIBUTIONS TO NUCLEAR FUSION RESEARCH UNDER INER- TIAL CONFINEMENT

In 1956, I graduated as a major in technical physics from Beijing University and was assigned to work in neutron physics during my early years after graduation. Several research achievements were obtained while I was working at the Joint Institute of Nuclear Physics of Dubna in suburban Moscow. In the mid-1960s, I was engaged in radioactive measurement for many years in nuclear detonation, and led and participated in H projects of

A Possible Way to Realize Controlled Nuclear Fusion at Low Temperatures

This paper presents a new way to realize controlled nuclear fusion. The way is that a single energy neutron beam fuses with given nuclei, such as lithium nuclei or boron nuclei, so that the nuclear energy is released. The sort of fusion can be achieved at low temperatures, because a neutron has no charge and has a large reaction cross section with a nucleus. The fusion is easy to control and does not produce radioactive spent nuclear fuel. One of the five sorts of neutron sources is the electron neutron source in which a single energy electron beam collides with a single energy bare nucleus beam, such as the deuteron, to produce a single energy neutron. These neutrons irradiate target nuclei and are absorbed by the target nuclei, so that nuclear energy is released. Compared with conventional fusion, it has the disadvantage of releasing less energy and energy density. In addition, it takes a certain amount of energy to produce a beam of single-energy neutrons. However, if some of the input energy can be effectively recycled, the fusion process must produce more energy than the input energy.

A Way to Realize Controlled Nuclear Fusion by γ-Laser or γ-Ray

A way is proposed to realize controllable-nuclear fusion by γ-laser or γ-ray and ordinary laser with their certain frequencies and large enough intensities to irradiate a target ball. The function of ordinary laser is to heat the target nuclei and to realize the inertial confinement for the target nuclei. The target nuclei absorbing γ-photons will be in a certain excited state. The scattering cross-sections will be larger and the ignition temperature will be lower to realize fusion of the nuclei in their excited states than those of the nuclei in their ground states. In contrast with the nuclei applied in conventional fusion, e.g., deutons and tritons, according to the way, the nuclei applied to fusion should have the following characters: the nuclei have their excited states, one of the excited states has higher energy and longer lifetime, and the masses of the nuclei are lesser. Thus, the Lawson conditions can more easily be realized so that the controllable nuclear fusion is possibly realized by the way.

Electrostatic Force of Repulsion Assists p-p Nuclear Fusion

Trapping of hydrogen ions released during sodium metal dissolution in a dilute aqueous Epsom solution in cavitation induced nanocrystals could bring about an easy path to controlled nuclear fusion. This type of fusion envisioning has the advantage of keeping the two protons and the electrons in the same vicinity, bonded in the same unit throughout the fusion process unlike the case in Sun. The electrostatic repulsive force between protons which has been a stumbling block so far in achieving a controlled fusion is now turned in its favor by exploiting the fascinating properties of water.

Energy Generation Processes and Cold Nuclear Fusion In Terms of Schrodinger Equation

The energy generation processes are analyzed in terms of Schrodinger equation,theformalism of which may account for both the cold nuclear fussion phenomena and the anomalousexcessive energy occurrences of a mysterious origin observed in experiments.

Progressive Thermalization Fusion Reactor Able to Produce Nuclear Fusions at Higher Mechanical Gain

In the standard fusion reactors, mainly tokamaks, the mechanical gain obtained is below 1. On the other hand, there are colliding beam fusion reactors, for which, the not neutral plasma and the space charge limit the number of fusions to a very small number. Consequently, the mechanical gain is extremely low. The proposed reactor is also a colliding beam fusion reactor, configured in Stellarator, using directed beams. D+/T+ ions are injected in opposition, with electrons, at high speeds, so as to form a neutral beam. All these particles turn in a magnetic loop in form of figure of “0” (“racetrack”). The plasma is initially non-thermal but, as expected, rapidly becomes thermal, so all states between non-thermal and thermal exist in this reactor. The main advantage of this reactor is that this plasma after having been brought up near to the optimum conditions for fusion (around 68 keV), is then maintained in this state, thanks to low energy non-thermal ions (≤15 keV). So the energetic cost is low and the mechanical gain (Q) is high (>>1). The goal of this article is to study a different type of fusion reactor, its advantages (no net plasma current inside this reactor, so no disruptive instabilities and consequently a continuous working, a relatively simple way to control the reactor thanks to the particles injectors), and its drawbacks, using a simulator tool. The finding results are valuable for possible future fusion reactors able to generate massive energy in a cleaner and safer way than fission reactors.

Charting the Future of Nuclear Energy Roadmaps for Fission and Fusion Technologies

As the world faces increasing energy demands and concerns about climate change,nuclear power is experiencing a resurgence as a viable and sustainable energy source.This article explores the strategic initiatives concerning the advancement of nuclear technologies,highlighting the prompt adoption of SMRs(small modular reactors),the ongoing advancements in Generation IV reactors in the medium term,and the long-term aspirations linked to nuclear fusion.SMRs offer enhanced safety,economic viability,and flexible deployment alternatives,making them an attractive solution for meeting pressing energy demands.In the medium term,Generation IV reactors are anticipated to improve efficiency,sustainability,and safety,effectively tackling the challenges associated with conventional fission reactors.However,significant challenges lie ahead,including public perception,regulatory hurdles,financial barriers,and the need for a skilled workforce.By addressing these challenges,nuclear power can play a pivotal role in creating a sustainable and reliable energy future,contributing significantly to global efforts in climate change mitigation.

Approximating the Radial Distribution Function of the Electron in a Hydrogen Atom by a Normal Distribution Suggests That Magnetic Confinement Fusion Would Be Less Energy Efficient than Inertial Confinement Fusion

Since the position of the electron in a hydrogen atom cannot be determined, the region in which it resides is said to be determined stochastically and forms an electron cloud. The probability density function of the single electron in 1s orbit is expressed as φ2, a function of distance from the nucleus. However, the probability of existence of the electron is expressed as a radial distribution function at an arbitrary distance from the nucleus, so it is estimated as the probability of the entire spherical shape of that radius. In this study, it has been found that the electron existence probability approximates the radial distribution function by assuming that the probability of existence of the electron being in the vicinity of the nucleus follows a normal distribution for arbitrary x-, y-, and z-axis directions. This implies that the probability of existence of the electron, which has been known only from the distance information, would follow a normal distribution independently in the three directions. When the electrons’ motion is extremely restricted in a certain direction by the magnetic field of both tokamak and helical fusion reactors, the probability of existence of the electron increases with proximity to the nucleus, and as a result, it is less likely to be liberated from the nucleus. Therefore, more and more energy is required to free the nucleus from the electron in order to generate plasma.

Review of LIBS application in nuclear fusion technology

Nuclear fusion has enormous potential to greatly affect global energy production. The next-generation tokamak ITER, which is aimed at demonstrating the feasibility of energy production from fusion on a commercial scale, is under construction. Wall erosion, material transport, and fuel retention are known factors that shorten the lifetime of ITER during tokamak operation and give rise to safety issues. These factors, which must be understood and solved early in the process of fusion reactor design and development, are among the most important concerns for the community of plasma-wall interaction researchers. To date, laser techniques are among the most promising methods that can solve these open ITER issues, and laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) is an ideal candidate for online monitoring of the walls of current and next-generation (such as ITER) fusion devices. LIBS is a widely used technique for various applications. It has been considered recently as a promising tool for analyzing plasma-facing components in fusion devices in situ. This article reviews the experiments that have been performed by many research groups to assess the feasibility of LIBS for this purpose.

Proposal of a Deuterium-Deuterium Fusion/PWR Fission Hybrid Reactor

This article proposes to associate a Deuterium-Deuterium (D-D) fusion reactor with a PWR (fission Pressurized Water Reactor) in a hybrid reactor. Even if the mechanical gain (Q factor) of the D-D fusion reactor is below the unity and consequently consumes more energy than it supplies, due to the high energy amplification factor of the PWR fission reactor, the global yield is widely superior to 1. As the energy supplied by the fusion reactor is relatively low and as the neutrons supplied are mainly issued from D-D fusions (at 2.45 MeV), the problems of heat flux and neutrons damage connected with materials, as with D-T fusion reactors are reduced. Of course, there is no need to produce Tritium with this D-D fusion reactor. This type of reactor is able to incinerate any mixture of natural Uranium, natural Thorium and depleted Uranium (waste issued from enrichment plants), with natural Thorium being the best choice. No enriched fuel is needed. So, this type of reactor could constitute a source of energy for several thousands of years because it is about 90 more efficient than a standard fission reactor, such as a PWR or a Candu one, by extracting almost completely the energy from the fertile materials U238 and Th232. For the fission part, PWR technology is mature. For the fusion part, it is based on a reasonable hypothesis done on present Stellarators projects. The working of this reactor is continuous, 24 hours a day. In this paper, it will be targeted a reactor able to provide net electric power of about 1400 MWe, as a big fission power plant.

A dumbbell model with five parameters describing nuclear fusion or fission

We propose a five-parameter dumbbell model to describe the fusion and fission processes of massive nuclei, where the collective variables are： distance ρ between center-of-mass of two fusing nuclei, neck parameter ν, asymmetry D, two deformation variables β1 and β2. The present model has macroscopic qualitative expression of polarization and nuclear collision of head to head, sphere to sphere, waist to waist and so on. The conception of ＂projectile eating target＂ based on open mouth and swallow is proposed to describe nuclear fusion process, and then our understanding of the probability of fusion and quasi-fission is in agreement with some previous work. The calculated fission barriers of a lot of compound nuclei are compared with the experimental data.

Recent progress of tungsten-based high-entropy alloys in nuclear fusion

The extreme environment in a fusion reactor,namely high thermal load and intense energetic particles,requires the materials to possess high strength and good ductility at high temperature in combination with excellent radiation resistance.Conventional metal tungsten(W)and its alloy cannot satisfy these rigorous requirements,but the discovery of the W-based high-entropy alloys(HEAs)with outstanding properties sheds light on the developments of structural materials.Unique properties of some of these alloys make them promising candidates for engineering applications in fusion reactor beyond conventional W and its alloys.In particular,their strengthening-toughening mechanism has also aroused wide concern.Here,the design,microstructure,mechanical properties and irradiation performance of W-based HEAs are reviewed,and their future prospects are outlined.

A Fusion Neutron Source Driven Sub-Critical Nuclear Energy System: A Way for Early Application of Fusion Technology

This paper proposes a sub-critical nuclear energy system driven by fusion neutron source, FDS, which can be used to transmute long-lived radioactive wastes and to produce fissile nuclear fuel as a way for early application of fusion technology. The necessity and feasibility to develop that system in China are illustrated on the basis of prediction of the demand of energy source in the first half of the 21th century, the status of current fission energy supply and the progress in fusion technology in the world. The characteristics of fusion neutron driver and the potential for transmutation of long-lived nuclear wastes and breeding of fissile nuclear fuel in a blanket are analyzed. A scenario of development steps is proposed.

THE POSSIBILITIES OF ELECTROCHEMICALLY INDUCED NUCLEAR FUSION OF DEUTERIUM

The possible mechanisms of deuteron-deuteron fusion during electrolytic infusion ofdeuterons into metallic palladium electrode are studied and a rough estimation of the fusionrate is made. The deuteron ions in the palladium lattice form a strong coupled plasma inwhich there is a strong screening effect induced by the correlation between ions. This effectincreases greatly the nuclear fusion rate. Our calculations, Lowever, show that D-D fusionrate in the equilibrium deuteron system at normal temperature and atmosphere pressure willnever reach the level that can be measured experimentally. The positive results of D-D fusionin some experiments may be caused by some non-equilibrium processes in which relativelyhigh energy of deuterons and/or high density region are locally produced.