The Intersection of Privacy by Design and Behavioral Economics: Nudging Users towards Privacy-Friendly Choices

This paper conducts a comprehensive review of existing research on Privacy by Design (PbD) and behavioral economics, explores the intersection of Privacy by Design (PbD) and behavioral economics, and how designers can leverage “nudges” to encourage users towards privacy-friendly choices. We analyze the limitations of rational choice in the context of privacy decision-making and identify key opportunities for integrating behavioral economics into PbD. We propose a user-centered design framework for integrating behavioral economics into PbD, which includes strategies for simplifying complex choices, making privacy visible, providing feedback and control, and testing and iterating. Our analysis highlights the need for a more nuanced understanding of user behavior and decision-making in the context of privacy, and demonstrates the potential of behavioral economics to inform the design of more effective PbD solutions.

扩展Nudging模式误差订正与初值蒙特卡洛集合预报的融合——模式参数和微分方程均有误差

本文主要研究扩展Nudging模式误差订正方案与初值蒙特卡洛集合预报的融合预报方法。这一方法首先使用历史资料估计出常数型模式误差,并将其叠加在模式倾向上作为新的预报模式,预报时再对此新预报模式的初始场叠加多了扰动,进行蒙特卡洛集合预报。这样在预报中不仅订正了模式误差,而且也考虑了初始场不确定性。在模式参数和微分方程均有误差的情况下,在最大简化气候模型的混沌台上,对这一新方法的预报效果做出全面的评估。数值试验结果表明,这一新方法在适当的人为扰动量级、预报时段和观测误差量级前提下,可以获得很好预报效果。

Nudging资料同化对北极海冰密集度预报的改进

北极夏季海冰的快速减少使得北极航道提前开通成为可能。为了给北极冰区船运活动提供及时可靠有效的海冰预报保障,急需提高海冰预报水平。本文基于麻省理工大学通用环流模式（MITgcm）,使用牛顿松弛逼近（Nudging）资料同化方法将德国不莱梅大学的第二代先进微波辐射成像仪（AMSR2）海冰密集度资料同化到模式中,建立了北极海冰数值预报系统。设计试验对比3种不同Nudging系数计算方案的改进效果,结果表明选择合适参数后,不同方案均能显著改进海冰密集度初始场。通过设计有无Nudging同化的两组预报试验,结合卫星遥感海冰密集度及中国第五次北极科学考察期间＂雪龙＂船的走航海冰密集度观测数据,定量分析了Nudging同化方案对北极海冰密集度的24~120h预报结果的改进效果。结果表明,Nudging同化对120h内全北极海冰密集度的空间分布和移动单点目标的海冰密集度预报结果均有显著改善;但在海冰变化很小的情况下,Nudging同化试验的24~120h预报结果均劣于惯性预报结果,说明基于Nudging同化的数值预报系统还需进一步提高预报技巧。

TRMM卫星的闪电观测资料在中尺度数值模式中的Nudging同化应用研究

在以往研究的基础上,本文提出一种利用TRMM卫星闪电观测资料改善中尺度数值模式水物质初始场的Nudging同化技术,这是把物理初始化方法与Nudging同化方法相结合的一种技术。根据TRMM卫星闪电观测水平分布,对水汽和云凝结物进行Nudging同化,对积云对流参数化方案进行调整,改变模式初始水汽和云凝结物场的含量,以达到提高中尺度数值模式初始场质量的目的。本文把这种Nudging同化技术应用于一次短时降水过程的中尺度数值模拟,结果分析表明,这种Nudging同化技术有利于增加模式初始场中水汽和云凝结物含量,特别是水汽和云水的含量,实现水汽和云凝结物的合理空间分布,改善中尺度数值模式短时降水和云凝结物的预报效果,这在一定程度上验证了该Nudging同化技术的可行性。

Nudging地面加密观测改进数值模式对城市效应及其触发对流的模拟:一次夜间个例试验

城市(热力、动力、人类活动等)效应对城市及周边地区强降水有着重要的影响。由于涉及到多方面因素,在数值模式中合理描述城市效应仍然存在许多困难。采用Nudging地面加密观测间接引入城市效应(Nudg)和使用城市冠层模式直接引入城市效应(Urba)两种方式模拟了2017年5月7日发生在广东广州的一次极端降水过程。结果表明Nudging地面加密观测能够有效地在数值模式中引入城市效应,从而合理地再现出城市热岛及其触发的对流和强降水的时空演变,而使用城市冠层模式未能够模拟出城市热岛及其触发的对流和降水。具体而言,Nudg能够维持城市的热岛,在城市热岛的下风方最先触发了对流,对流快速发展并稳定维持,从而在广州城市下风(西北)方形成了强降水。然而,Urba试验中城市热岛迅速减弱消亡,从而未能在城市下风方触发出对流,导致降水模拟的失败;尽管后期在城市下风方边缘及北部山区有零星的雷达回波,但均未能够发展形成组织化的对流单体或系统。对本次强降水事件对流的触发而言,城市热岛的加热作用较城市的摩擦辐合更重要。提出的Nudging地面加密观测间接地引入城市效应的方法可用于与城市下垫面相关的各类天气事件的模拟研究。

Nudging同化方案改进及其在西北太平洋海域M_2分潮模拟中的应用

基于POM模式,以西北太平洋海域为试验海区,针对Nudging松弛项的差分方案及Nudging松弛系数进行了数值试验。结果表明,通过引入Nudging松弛项的潮波模拟结果明显优于未加Nudging松弛项的模拟结果;在松弛系数取值相等情况下,Nudging松弛项采用隐式差分方案的结果要优于采用显式差分方案的结果;Nudging松弛项差分方案不论是显式还是隐式,模拟结果的偏差都随着松弛系数的增加而逐渐减小,当松弛系数增加到最优值后,模拟结果的偏差将随着松弛系数的增加而加大;Nudging松弛项差分方案为显式时,松弛系数太大将导致模式溢出;而Nudging松弛项差分方案为隐式时,能够有效增大松弛系数的阈值。文中还给出了最优Nudging同化方案下西北太平洋海域M2分潮的同潮图。

Nudging方法对宁蒙河段气温的模拟试验研究

气温预报的准确性是黄河流域凌汛预报的一个关键因素,黄河宁蒙河段防凌急需精细气温预报产品。利用基于WRF模式的Nudging同化方法,结合NCEP再分析资料和地面观测资料,对2018年12月宁蒙河段气温进行同化模拟试验。通过对比分析未进行同化、Grid Nudging和Spectral Nudging三种方案对气温场的模拟效果,以及宁蒙河段模拟气温与实况气温之间平均误差、均方根误差、相关系数方面的差异,发现同化试验对气温的模拟效果明显提升,并且两种Nudging试验的结果基本一致,为该地区建立凌汛期精细化气温预报提供技术支撑。

起沙方案及Nudging对中国西北沙尘模拟的影响

利用耦合了AFWA和Shao04起沙参数化方案的WRF-Chem模式结合Nudging方法,对2020年4月9~11日发生在我国西北地区的一次沙尘天气过程进行模拟,结合地面及卫星观测数据,对模式模拟沙尘的能力进行了初步验证,分析了不同起沙方案及其结合Nudging方法后对模式模拟结果的影响。结果表明,2种起沙方案均有能力再现此次沙尘天气过程,开启Nudging后2种方案模拟出的沙尘分布结果都有所改进。对于地面沙尘模拟,在沙尘源区不开Nudging的模式模拟结果更接近观测,在沙尘影响区开启Nudging后的模拟结果更优。整体而言,结合了Nudging方法的Shao04起沙方案对我国西北地区的沙尘过程具有更好的模拟能力。Nudging方法对模式模拟风场的能力改进较为明显,从而提高了模式对沙尘的模拟能力。

雷达反演资料的Nudging同化对华南暴雨过程短临预报的影响

基于1 km分辨率的华南区域短临预报模式,利用松弛逼近法Nudging同化由雷达观测反演的风场和水物质,选取两次华南前汛期降水过程进行试验,目的在于研究调整初始风场和调整初始水物质场对于短临模式降水预报的不同影响。首先对反演结果进行了初步验证,结果表明试验中反演结果是基本合理的。进而将雷达反演结果 Nudging同化到模式预报中,和控制试验(test-ctl)进行比较可以看出:(1)仅Nudging同化水物质试验(test-qcqr)可以比较有效地改进0~7 h降水预报,特别是对于0~2 h降水偏少的现象改进最为显著。(2)仅Nudging同化风场试验(test-uv)对3~7 h预报有一定的改进,但总体来说改进的幅度很小。(3)同时Nudging同化水物质及风场试验(test-qcqr-uv)的结果最优,它对于0~10 h降水预报都有比较明显的改进。从微物理量的垂直分布来看,前期模式降水主要来源于Nudging同化到初始场中的水物质信息,所以test-qcqr和test-qcqr-uv对前期降水预报的改进都比较明显。Nudging同化雷达反演风场资料可以迅速的调整初始场中低层辐合线存在的偏差,但是它对降水的影响必须配合水物质的调整才能比较明显地体现出来。总的来说,Nudging同化水物质对于短临降水预报影响最为显著,而在此基础上Nudging同化雷达风场对于3 h之后的降水预报会有更好的改进。

NUDGING方法同化雷达反射率因子个例试验研究

利用ECMEF全球高分辨率模式资料,采用松弛逼近方法(Nudging)同化多普勒雷达反射率因子,通过在华南区域GRAPES3km模式中对海南岛降水过程个例进行数值模拟,分析不同Nudging方法对模式预报效果的影响。结果表明:(1)采用Nudging同化方法可使背景场和观测反演的资料相协调,缩短模式热启动时间,可增加开始时段的降水量;(2)同化雷达反射率因子能够提高海南岛0~6h逐时降水评分,模拟值更接近实况观测;(3)同化后,华南区域GRAPES3km模式能够捕捉到更多的中小尺度信息,可改善海南岛24h强降水的量级;(4)在初始场Nudging订正云水、雨水、水汽场等,其水凝物分布合理,降水预报效果最佳。

Impact of Spectral Nudging on the Downscaling of Tropical Cyclones in Regional Climate Simulations

This study investigated the simulations of three months of seasonal tropical cyclone （TC） activity over the western North Pacific using the Advanced Research WRF Model. In the control experiment （CTL）, the TC frequency was considerably overestimated. Additionally, the tracks of some TCs tended to have larger radii of curvature and were shifted eastward. The large-scale environments of westerly monsoon flows and subtropical Pacific highs were unreasonably simulated. The overestimated frequency of TC formation was attributed to a strengthened westerly wind field in the southern quadrants of the TC center. In comparison with the experiment with the spectral nudging method, the strengthened wind speed was mainly modulated by large-scale flow that was greater than approximately 1000 km in the model domain. The spurious formation and undesirable tracks of TCs in the CTL were considerably improved by reproducing realistic large-scale atmospheric monsoon circulation with substantial adjustment between large-scale flow in the model domain and large-scale boundary forcing modified by the spectral nudging method. The realistic monsoon circulation took a vital role in simulating realistic TCs. It revealed that, in the downscaling from large-scale fields for regional climate simulations, scale interaction between model-generated regional features and forced large-scale fields should be considered, and spectral nudging is a desirable method in the downscaling method.

HIGH-RESOLUTION NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF TYPHOON LONGWANG(2005) WITH THE SPECTRUM NUDGING TECHNIQUE

With the Weather Research and Forecasting model （WRFV3.2.1）, the application of specmun nudging tech- niques in numerical simulation of the genesis and development of typhoon Longwang （2005） is evaluated in this work via four numerical experiments with different nudging techniques. It is found that, due to the ability to capture the large-scale fields and to keep the meso-to small-scale features derived from the model dynamics, the experiment with spectrum nudging technique can simulate the formation, intensification and motion of Longwang properly. The improve- ment on the numerical simulation of Longwang induced by the spectrum nudging depends on the nudging coefficients. A weak spectrum nudging does not make significant improvement on the simulation of Longwang. Although the experi- ment with four-dimensional data assimilation, i.e., FDDA, also derives the genesis and movement of Longwang appro- priately, it fails to simulate the intensifying process of Longwang properly. The reason is that, as the large-scale features derived from the model are nudged to the observational data, the meso- to small-processes produced by the model dy- namics important to the intensification of typhoon are nearly smoothed by FDDA.

Effects of spectral nudging on the 2010 East Asia summer monsoon using WRF model

The performance of spectral nudging in an investigation of the 2010 East Asia summer monsoon was assessed using the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model, forced by 1-degree NCEP Global Final Analysis (FNL). Two pairs of experiments were made, spectral nudging (SP) and non-spectral nudging (NOSP), with five members in each group. The members were distinguished by different initial times, and the analysis was based on the ensemble mean of the two simulation pairs. The SP was able to constrain error growth in large-scale circulation in upper-level, during simulation, and generate realistic regional scale patterns. The main focus was the model ability to simulate precipitation. The Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) 3B42 product was used for precipitation verification. Mean precipitation magnitude was generally overestimated by WRF. Nevertheless, SP simulations suppressed overestimation relative to the NOSP experiments. Compared to TRMM, SP also improved model simulation of precipitation in spatial and temporal distributions, with the ability to reproduce movement of rainbands. However, extreme precipitation events were suppressed in the SP simulations.

Nudging资料同化方法对WRF模式模拟西北干旱区域降水过程的影响

应用WRF V3.8.1模式,对在"内蒙古微气象观测蒸发试验"期间的2015年5月19-20日、7月21-22日两次强降水过程进行模拟试验。为了检验牛顿松弛逼近方法(Nudging)在干旱区强降水过程模拟中的作用,本文采用3种不同的再分析资料驱动WRF模式,每种再分析资料设置控制试验、Grid Nudging、Spectral Nudging三个试验,共计18组试验,结合同期的观测数据和外场试验的资料进行对比分析。结果表明:三种再分析资料在经过Nudging之后的试验对气流的轨迹模拟都有着提升,其中Spectral Nudging试验模拟的效果最佳。经过Nudging后,降水落区和量级的模拟有着提高,其中Grid Nudging试验在TS评分上面的提升相比Spectral Nudging试验更大。Spectral Nudging试验对地面10m处的风速也有着明显的改善。

An ensemble-based SST nudging method proposed for correcting the subsurface temperature field in climate model

An ensemble-based assimilation method is proposed for correcting the subsurface temperature field when nudging the sea surface temperature(SST) observations into the Max Planck Institute(MPI) climate model,ECHAM5/MPI-OM. This method can project SST directly to subsurface according to model ensemble-based correlations between SST and subsurface temperature. Results from a 50 year(1960–2009) assimilation experiment show the method can improve the subsurface temperature field up to 300 m compared to the qualitycontrolled subsurface ocean temperature objective analyses(EN4), through reducing the biases of the thermal states, improving the thermocline structure, and reducing the root mean square(RMS) errors. Moreover, as most of the improvements concentrate over the upper 100 m, the ocean heat content in the upper 100 m(OHT100 m)is further adopted as a property to validate the performance of the ensemble-based correction method. The results show that RMS errors of the global OHT100 m convergent to one value after several times iteration,indicating this method can represent the relationship between SST and subsurface temperature fields well, and then improve the accuracy of the simulation in the subsurface temperature of the climate model.

Assimilation of GMS-5 satellite winds using nudging method with MM5

With the aid of Meteorological Information Composite and Processing System (MICAPS), satellite wind vectors derived from the Geostationary Meteorological Statellite-5 (GMS-5) and retrieved by National Satellite Meteorology Center of China (NSMC) can be obtained. Based on the nudging method built in the fifth-generation Mesoscale Model (MM5) of Pennsylvania State University and Na- tional Center for Atmospheric Research, a data preprocessor is developed to convert these satellite wind vectors to those with specified format required in MM5. To examine the data preprocessor and evaluate the impact of satellite winds from GMS-5 on MM5 simulations, a series of numerical experimental fore- casts consisting of four typhoon cases in 2002 are designed and implemented. The results show that the preprocessor can process satellite winds smoothly and MM5 model runs successfully with a little extra computational load during ingesting these winds, and that assimilation of satellite winds by MM5 nudging method can obviously improve typhoon track forecast but contributes a little to typhoon intensity forecast. The impact of the satellite winds depends heavily upon whether the typhoon bogussing scheme in MM5 was turned on or not. The data preprocessor developed in this paper not only can treat GMS-5 satellite winds but also has capability with little modification to process derived winds from other geostationary satellites.

基于Nudging方法对全球海洋M_(2)和m_(1)分潮的同化研究

基于全球海洋模式OGCTM(Ocean General Circulation and Tide Model),利用19年(1992—2011年)的卫星高度计资料调和分析得到全球分潮调和常数回报逐时正压潮水位;采用Nudging(牛顿松弛逼近)方法进行潮汐同化,针对Nudging松弛项的差分方案以及松弛系数进行了数值试验研究。一系列试验结果表明,不论采用显式还是隐式Nudging松弛方案,模式结果的偏差会随着松弛系数的增加先减小后增大,松弛系数最优值为1×10^(-5);当松弛系数太大时,会造成模式的溢出。Nudging松弛项采用隐式差分方案可以显著提高松弛系数的阈值;松弛系数在适当的取值范围内时,加入Nudging松弛项的数值试验描述的潮汐特征要明显优于未加Nudging松弛项的数值试验描述的潮汐特征;在最优Nudging松弛方案下,Nudging松弛方法对全日分潮的振幅模拟准确度可提高50%,对半日分潮的振幅模拟准确度可提高56%。试验结果也表明了Nudging方法作为一种简单的同化方法的可行性和有效性。

Order Out of Chaos: Nudging Tourists’ Behaviours at a Time of Disruption?

A set of major disruptive political,socio-economic,technological,and ecological trends presents serious issues for tourism policy makers,regulators,and operators alike.In this turbulent context,how best to attempt to predict tourist behaviours?In tourism research the dominant rationalistic approach to decision-making does provide some useful insights across tourism choice.However,it seems increasingly less suited to the often relatively unplanned,hedonic,opportunistic,and impulsive decision-making that often characterises tourists’behaviours on-site within a destination,and more generally to the behaviours of Generation Y and Generation Z.More generally,it is arguable that rational models of motivation and decision-making systematically underestimate the importance of affective processes in tourists’behaviours.In this paper,we explore the implications of employing a much more naturalistic approach to decision-making at both the policy level and at the frontline of tourism operations.

The Role of Nudging in Systems

The 2017 Nobel Prize in Economics was awarded to Thaler,whose concept of nudges has been widely used.Although existing research has proposed numerous nudging strategies,no research comprehensively examines the role of nudging,resulting limited in attention across various fields.To fill this gap,this study aims to present how to analyze the role of nudges in the system using a systems thinking approach.The analysis indicates that nudges have a multiplier effect in the system and can achieve significant results at a small cost.We use three cases to analyze the effective impact of nudges on decision making:changing the default setting in organ donation,providing the check list to avoid mistakes in surgery,and the approach to prevent the coronavirus epidemic applied in China.

A Spatially Dependent Nudging Method and Its Application to a Global Tide Assimilation

Tides represent a crucial dynamic process in the ocean and play a vital role in both marine and atmospheric studies,thus,accurate simulation of tidal processes is of the utmost importance in tidal circulation models.Bazed on the sequential data assimilation method and the concept of the Kalman gain matrix,this paper proposes a new nudging method with spatially dependent coefficients for tidal assimilation.The spatial-dependent nudging method not only retains the advantages of the traditional nudging method but also facilitates the direct determination of a more reasonable spatial distribution of nudging coefficients.Utilizing the M_(2)tidal constituent(the main lunar semidiurnal tide)as an illustration,we conducted assimilation experiments of sea-level data to the barotropic circulation and tide model to assess the global harmonic constants of the M_(2)constituent.The results demonstrate that the spatial-dependent nudging method successfully mitigates deviations of tidal phase lag.Following assimilation using the new method,the deviations of the M_(2)tidal amplitude and phase lag can be reduced by 47%and 18%compared to the traditional nudging method,respectively,while the respective values for the non-assimilated case are as much as 9%and 11%.We also applied the S-nudging method to realistic tidal simulations and noted a significantly enhanced effectiveness relative to traditional methods,making it highly valuable for modeling oceanic tidal circulations.