Collecting Ophiocordyceps sinensis:an emerging livelihood strategy in the Garhwal,Indian Himalaya

In the Garhwal of Uttarakhand, India, the Bhotiya, an ethnically and culturally distinct tribal group, were historically engaged in seasonal migration(i.e. transhumance) to take advantage of scarce mountain resources and trade relations with Tibet. This livelihood practice has all but disappeared.Households are adapting to these changing circumstances by engaging in the collection and sale of the valuable alpine medicinal fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis, widely known as Cordyceps. The collection of this fungus has exploded, emerging as a lucrative yet high-risk livelihood strategy for many Bhotiya communities.The Bhotiyas' historic herding and trade-based interactions and knowledge of these alpine environments where Cordyceps are found uniquely positions them to access this valuable biological resource. Elsewhere in the Himalayan region, some households are earning as much as two-thirds of their income from the collection of Cordyceps; in China Cordyceps is now listed as an endangered species due to intense over-exploitation in the Tibetan Plateau.This paper seeks to fill the void in the scientific literature on the social, ecological and economic aspects of the emerging Cordyceps trade in the Garhwal. Our study investigates the socio-spatial dimensions of Cordyceps collection in the high alpine meadows. We document how a fusion of local knowledge and practice with alpine mountain systems has served to reinvigorate the economic integrity of mountain communities at a time of rapid socioeconomic change and to reimagine a new relationship between alpine resources and community well-being.The article offers suggestions to address the sustainability of both Cordyceps collection and livelihood activities which hinge on this fungus population. We find a need for(1) community-based conservation measures that are rooted in(2) secure resource access rights for local communities to continue sustainable collection and sale of Cordyceps and(3) participatory-and science-based processes for determining appropriate local collection numbers.

Study on the Arsenic Content of Ophiocordyceps sinensis in Sichuan Province

[Objectives] To investigate the characteristics of arsenic content of Ophiocordyceps sinensis in Sichuan Province. [Methods]Using ICP-MS( Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry),we studied the 30 samples of O. sinensis from 25 places of production in Sichuan Province as well as the arsenic content in the habitat soil. [Results] The arsenic content of O. sinensis in Sichuan Province was0. 62-9. 16 mg/kg; the arsenic content in habitat soil was 3. 93-59. 90 mg/kg. [Conclusions]90% of O. sinensis products from Sichuan Province exceeded the arsenic content limit of 1 mg/kg in the health food,and as a comparison,the arsenic content of samples from Qinghai,Tibet,Gansu was over the limit.

Rapid Analysis of Polar Components in Ophiocordyceps sinensis by Conventional Liquid Chromatography System

Objective To develop a rapid high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with diode array detection （HPLC-DAD） method for the simultaneous determination of six polar compounds in Ophiocordyceps sinensis. Methods A poroshell SB Aq column （50 mm × 4.6 mm, 2.7 μm） and gradient elution were used; The detection wavelength of compounds was set at 260 nm. The chromatographic peaks of the six investigated compounds in sample were identified by comparing their retention times with reference compounds. Results All calibration curves showed good linearity （r〉 0.999） within the tested ranges. The intra- and inter-day precisions of the six analytes were less than 0.8% and 2.1%, respectively, and the recoveries of the six analytes were between 95% and 103%. The validated method was successfully applied to the determination of six polar compounds in O. sinensis samples. Conclusion The poroshell SB Aq column is suitable for the rapid analysis of polar components in Chinese materia medica on conventional HPLC system and the developed HPLC method is also helpful to the quality control of O. sinensis.

Discovery of differential sequences for improving breeding and yield of cultivated Ophiocordyceps sinensis through ITS sequencing and phylogenetic analysis

To accelerate the breeding process of cultivated Ophiocordyceps sinensis and increase its yield,it is important to identify molecular fingerprint of dominant O.sinensis.In the present study,we collected 3 batches of industrially cultivated O.sinensis product with higher yield than the others and compared their internal transcribed spacer(ITS)sequences with the wild and the reported.The ITS sequence was obtained by bidirectional sequencing and analyzed with molecular systematics as a DNA barcode for rapid and accurate identification of wild and cultivated O.sinensis collected.The ITS sequences of O.sinensis with detailed collection loci on NCBI were downloaded to construct a phylogenetic tree together with the sequences obtained from the present study by using neighbor-joining method based on their evolution relationship.The information on collection loci was analyzed with ArcGIS 10.2 to demonstrate the geographic distribution of these samples and thus to determine the origin of the dominant samples.The results showed that all wild and cultivated samples were identified as O.sinensis and all sequences were divided into seven phylogenetic groups in the tree.Those groups were precisely distributed on the map and the process of their system evolution was clearly presented.The three cultivated samples were clustered into two dominant groups,showing the correlation between the industrially cultivated samples and the dominant wild samples,which can provide references for its optimized breeding in the future.

Developmental recording of the ghost-moth larvae after ex situ infection by Ophiocordyceps sinensis

Dear Editor,Chinese cordyceps, a valuable Chinese traditional medicine, is a complex of mummified ghost moth caterpillars and fungal stroma of Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Winkler, 2010). O. sinensis has been nominated as the national fungus of China and flagship species of the Tibetan Plateau (Cannon, 2010;Zhang et al., 2012).

On-site identification of Ophiocordyceps sinensis using multispectral imaging and chemometrics

For the reasonable and effective collection of Ophiocordyceps sinensis,a new method of on-site identification was attempted using a portable multispectral imaging(MSI)technique.Three dimensional(3D)data-cubes of representative Ophiocordyceps sinensis and weeds samples were acquired and pre-processed with standard normal variate transformation(SNV).Principal component analysis(PCA)and simulated annealing particle swarm optimisation(SAPSO)algorithms were used to extract characteristic images and develop the support vector classification(SVC)models.Results show that the fused feature model of SAPSO-SVC has the best performance,resulting in a recognition accuracy of the prediction set of 96.30%.Moreover,on-site distribution map of Ophiocordyceps sinensis and weeds was created using the spectral feature model of SAPSO-SVC,and the target could be easily identified from the distribution map.This work demonstrates the potential for on-site identification of Ophiocordyceps sinensis in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau using a portable MSI technique combined with the SAPSO-SVC algorithm.

Cultivated Cordyceps: A Tale of Two Treasured Mushrooms

Ophiocordyceps sinensis and Cordyceps militaris both contain many bioactive compounds that confer potential therapeutic benefits. This review discusses the possible use of cultivated C. militaris as an effective substitute for native O. sinensis in the face of ever-increasing prices of O. sinensis because of its short supply. On the one hand, cultivated C. militaris contains higher levels of cordycepin when compared with that of wild-type O. sinensis and cultivation of C. militaris has been shown to be capable of reducing the risk of heavy metal contamination. On the other hand, there is a paucity of robust in vivo studies and randomized controlled tests comparing the pharmacology and use of C. militaris and O. sinensis. For extraction of cordycepin as western-style tablets, the use of cultivated C. militaris rather than O. sinensis represents the most appropriate future approach. For many other purposes, comparative pharmacology and clinical trials are in urgent needs.

Cordyceps as potential therapeutic agents for atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis is a leading cause of mortality and morbidity worldwide.Despite the challenges in managing atherosclerosis,researchers continue to investigate new treatments and complementary therapies.Cordyceps is a traditional Chinese medicine that has recently gained attention as a potential therapeutic agent for atherosclerosis.Numerous studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of cordyceps in treating atherosclerosis through various pharmacological actions,including anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities,lowering cholesterol,inhibiting platelet aggregation,and modulating apoptosis or autophagy in vascular endothelial cells.Notably,the current misuse of the terms cordyceps and Ophiocordyceps sinensis has caused confusion among researchers,and complicated the current academic research on cordyceps.This review focuses on the chemical composition,pharmacological actions,and underlying mechanisms contributing to the anti-atherosclerotic effects of cordyceps and the mycelium of Ophiocordyceps spp.This review provides a resource for the research on the development of new drugs for atherosclerosis from cordyceps.

Mushrooms in the Mountains: Assessing the Role of Fungi on the Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) Practices in Nepal Himalaya

To achieve the Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs), thereby meet the post 2020 global biodiversity targets and increase resilience to climate change, nature-based approaches such as ecosystem-based adaptation(EbA) is suggested as a promising and integrated adaptation strategy. EbA comprises adaptation strategies that value the role of ecosystems in reducing social vulnerability to climate change. Among the different biological groups on earth, fungi play not only an important role to maintain the biogeochemical cycle/nutrient cycle in ecosystems(supporting and regulating services), but also contribute to the socio-economic and cultural benefits of societies(provisioning and cultural services). Here, we present our knowledge and scientific understanding on how these neglected groups of biodiversity-fungi are crucial for ecosystem-based adaptation(EbA) approach based on our field experience, review and associated expertise on caterpillar fungus(Ophiocordyceps sinensis), and other wild mushrooms found in Nepal. Several species of fungi are used by local communities as food, medicines, and environmental income. Fungi are important sources of household income for mountain communities in Nepal providing a cushion during shocks and disasters and supporting food security, health care, education and building shelter. For the holistic EbA approach, it is essential to strengthen local institutions as well as indigenous local knowledge which could be an important policy intervention for the identification, conservation, and sustainable management of ecologically, socially and economically useful fungal species.