CLOUD RADIATIVE AND MICROPHYSICAL EFFECTS ON THE RELATION BETWEEN SPATIAL MEAN RAIN RATE, RAIN INTENSITY AND FRACTIONAL RAINFALL COVERAGE

Cloud radiative and microphysical effects on the relation between spatial mean rain rate, rain intensity and fractional rainfall coverage are investigated in this study by conducting and analyzing a series of two-dimensional cloud resolving model sensitivity experiments of pre-summer torrential rainfall in June 2008. The analysis of time-mean data shows that the exclusion of radiative effects of liquid clouds reduces domain mean rain rate by decreasing convective rain rate mainly through the reduced convective-rainfall area associated with the strengthened hydrometeor gain in the presence of radiative effects of ice clouds, whereas it increases domain mean rain rate by enhancing convective rain rate mainly via the intensified convective rain intensity associated with the enhanced net condensation in the absence of radiative effects of ice clouds. The removal of radiative effects of ice clouds decreases domain mean rain rate by reducing stratiform rain rate through the suppressed stratiform rain intensity related to the suppressed net condensation in the presence of radiative effects of liquid clouds, whereas it increases domain mean rain rate by strengthening convective rain rate mainly via the enhanced convective rain intensity in response to the enhanced net condensation in the absence of radiative effects of liquid clouds. The elimination of microphysical effects of ice clouds suppresses domain mean rain rate by reducing stratiform rain rate through the reduced stratiform-rainfall area associated with severely reduced hydrometeor loss.

Rainfall Monitoring Using a Microwave Links Network:A Long-Term Experiment in East China

The first long-term rainfall monitoring experiment using the commercial microwave links(CMLs)network in East China is introduced.The network,located in Jiangyin,Jiangsu Province,consists of 49 links with frequencies ranging from 15 GHz to 26 GHz and lengths from 1.14 km to 4.78 km.An OTT PARSIVEL disdrometer is deployed to refine the local rain-induced attenuation relationship,and the CML observations are compared simultaneously with five rain gauges.The inversion parameters of the CML are optimized by minimizing the error of the accumulated rainfall of historical rainfall events.The inversion results show that the daily accumulated rainfall retrieved by the CMLs agrees well with the rain gauge measurements.As an opportunistic approach to monitor near-surface rainfall with high spatiotemporal representativeness and accuracy,the CML network can be used to monitor and forecast urban flood disasters,especially in regions where the widepread deployment of conventional meteorological instruments is impractical.

Retrievals of Rain-Rate over Oceans from SSM/IData Using SOM Model

A Self-Organizing Feature Mapping (SOM) network model was developed for the retrievals of rain-rate (RR) over oceans from SSM / I measurement, by using the SSM / I and corresponding radar-derived rain-rate data provided by National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA). Based on the frequency-distribution of rain-rate samples, the SOM model was constructed in different rain-rate ranges. The model was first trained by five-sixths of the data, and the other data were used to test the retrieval ability of the model. The retrieval results of the SOM model were compared with two statistically-based algorithms. It is shown that the SOM model provides better retrievals of rain-rate.

Evaluation on Radar Reflectivity-Rainfall Rate (Z-R) Relationships for Guyana

The constant development of science and technology in weather radar results in high-resolution spatial and temporal rainfall estimates and improved early warnings of meteorological phenomena such as flood [1]. Weather radars do not measure the rainfall amount directly, so a relationship between the reflectivity (Z) and rainfall rate (R), called the Z-R relationship (Z = aRb), where a and b are empirical constants, can be used to estimate the rainfall amount. In this research, mathematical techniques were used to find the best climatological Z-R relationships for the Low Coastal Plain of Guyana. The reflectivity data from the S-Band Doppler Weather Radar for February 17 and 21, 2011 and May 8, 2012 together with the daily rainfall depths at 29 rainfall stations located within a 150 km radius were investigated. A climatological Z-R relationship type Z = 200R1.6 (Marshall-Palmer) configured by default into the radar system was used to investigate the correlation between the radar reflectivity and the rainfall by gauges. The same data sets were used with two distinct experimental Z-R relationships, Z = 300R1.4 (WSR-88D Convective) and Z = 250R1.2 (Rosenfeld Tropical) to determine if any could be applicable for area of study. By comprehensive regression analysis, New Z-R and R-Z relationships for each of the three events aforementioned were developed. In addition, a combination of all the samples for all three events were used to produce another relationship called “All in One”. Statistical measures were then applied to detect BIAS and Error STD in order to produce more evidence-based results. It is proven that different Z-R relationships could be calibrated into the radar system to provide more accurate rainfall estimation.

A Study of Air/Space-borne Dual-Wavelength Radar for Estimation of Rain Profiles

In this study, a framework is given by which air/space-borne dual-wavelength radar data can be used to estimate the characteristic parameters of hydrometeors. The focus of the study is on the Global Precipitation Measurement （GPM） precipitation radar, a dual-wavelength radar that will operate in the Ku （13.6 GHz） and Ka （35 GHz） bands. A key aspect of the retrievals is the relationship between the differential frequency ratio （DFR） and the median volume diameter, Do, and its dependence on the phase state of the hydrometeors. It is shown that parametric plots of Do and particle concentration in the plane of the DFR and the radar reflectivity factor in the Ku band can be used to reduce the ambiguities in deriving Do from DFR. A self-consistent iterative algorithm, which does not require the use of an independent pathattenuation constraint, is examined by applying it to the apparent radar reflectivity profiles simulated from a drop size distribution （DSD） model. For light to moderate rain, the self-consistent rain profiling approach converges to the correct solution only if the same shape factor of the Gamma distributions is used both to generate and retrieve the rain profiles. On the other hand, if the shape factors differ, the iteration generally converges but not to the correct solution. To further examine the dual-wavelength techniques, the selfconsistent iterative algorithm, along with forward and backward rain profiling algorithms, are applied to measurements taken from the 2nd generation Precipitation Radar （PR-2） built by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Consistent with the model results, it is found that the estimated rain profiles are sensitive to the shape factor of the size distribution when the iterative, self-consistent approach is used but relatively insensitive to this parameter when the forward- and backward-constrained approaches are used.

Understanding the Variability of Z-R Relationships Caused by Natural Variations in Raindrop Size Distributions(DSD):Implication of Drop Size and Number

In the issue of rainfall estimation by radar through the necessary relationship between radar reflectivity Z and rain rate R (Z-R), the main limitation is attributed to the variability of this relationship. Indeed, several pre-vious studies have shown the great variability of this relationship in space and time, from a rainfall event to another and even within a single rainfall event. Recent studies have shown that the variability of raindrop size distributions and thereby Z-R relationships is therefore, more the result of complex dynamic, thermody-namic and microphysical processes within rainfall systems than a convective/stratiform classification of the ground rainfall signature. The raindrop number and size at ground being the resultant of various processes mentioned above, a suitable approach would be to analyze their variability in relation to that of Z-R relation-ship. In this study, we investigated the total raindrop concentration number NT and the median volume di-ameter D0 used in numerous studies, and have shown that the combination of these two ‘observed’ parame-ters appears to be an interesting approach to better understand the variability of the Z-R relationships in the rainfall events, without assuming a certain analytical raindrop size distribution model (exponential, gamma, or log-normal). The present study is based on the analysis of disdrometer data collected at different seasons and places in Africa, and aims to show the degree of the raindrop size and number implication in regard to the Z-R relationships variability.

Effects of sea surface temperature,cloud radiative and microphysical processes,and diurnal variations on rainfall in equilibrium cloud-resolving model simulations

The effects of sea surface temperature（SST）,cloud radiative and microphysical processes,and diurnal variations on rainfall statistics are documented with grid data from the two-dimensional equilibrium cloud-resolving model simulations.For a rain rate of higher than 3 mm.h 1,water vapor convergence prevails.The rainfall amount decreases with the decrease of SST from 29℃ to 27℃,the inclusion of diurnal variation of SST,or the exclusion of microphysical effects of ice clouds and radiative effects of water clouds,which are primarily associated with the decreases in water vapor convergence.However,the amount of rainfall increases with the increase of SST from 29℃ to 31℃,the exclusion of diurnal variation of solar zenith angle,and the exclusion of the radiative effects of ice clouds,which are primarily related to increases in water vapor convergence.For a rain rate of less than 3 mm.h 1,water vapor divergence prevails.Unlike rainfall statistics for rain rates of higher than 3 mm.h 1,the decrease of SST from 29℃ to 27℃ and the exclusion of radiative effects of water clouds in the presence of radiative effects of ice clouds increase the rainfall amount,which corresponds to the suppression in water vapor divergence.The exclusion of microphysical effects of ice clouds decreases the amount of rainfall,which corresponds to the enhancement in water vapor divergence.The amount of rainfall is less sensitive to the increase of SST from 29℃ to 31℃ and to the radiative effects of water clouds in the absence of the radiative effects of ice clouds.

A MODELING STUDY OF PARAMETERIZATION SCHEMES FOR DEPOSITIONAL GROWTH OF ICE CRYSTAL:FOUR RAINFALL CASES OVER TROPICS AND MIDLATITUDES

Depositional growth of ice crystal is one of the major processes for development of precipitation systems and can be represented by depositional growth of cloud ice from cloud water(P_(IDW)) and depositional growth of snow from cloud ice(P_(SFI)) in cloud-resolving model. Four parameterization schemes are analyzed in the cloud-resolving model simulations of four rainfall cases over the tropics and midlatitudes. The comparison of time and model domain mean data shows that Shen's scheme produces the closest rainfall simulation to the observation. Compared to Zeng's scheme,Shen's scheme improves the mean rain-rate simulation significantly through the dramatic decrease in depositional growth of cloud ice from cloud water. Compared to other schemes, Shen's scheme produces the better rainfall simulation via the reduction in the mean rain rate associated with the enhanced gain of cloud water and ice.

黔东南州水稻连阴雨保险纯费率厘定

水稻生育中后期至收获阶段的连阴雨是影响其生长和晾晒的限制环境,研究连阴雨保险纯费率,对于降低农业气象灾害风险具有重要意义。本研究利用黔东南州16个县(市)1980-2020年水稻单产数据及气象资料,构建水稻连阴雨减产模型,基于拟合优度检验法,从6种分布模型中筛选各县(市)最优模型估算连阴雨灾害概率,结合连阴雨概率及减产率厘定保险纯费率。结果表明:黔东南州水稻连阴雨综合指数与减产率呈显著的线性关系,线性表达式为Yr=6.66CRI+4.12,连阴雨综合指数越大,水稻减产率越高。连阴雨发生概率随灾害程度加重而降低,各县(市)有30%~50%的概率发生轻度连阴雨,中度和重度连阴雨概率则分别为10%~30%、0~3%;海拔较高的麻江、黄平发生中度、重度连阴雨的概率较其余地区偏高。16个县(市)水稻连阴雨保险纯费率分别在7.38%~10.47%,西北部麻江、黄平两个县保险纯费率较高,达9.5%以上。

Analysis of the Effects of Rainfall Intensity into the Performance of Video Conferencing

Attenuation due to rain is an important limitation in the designing of the microwave communication links operating at frequencies above 10 GHz. Video conferencing performs over high-speed link via high-speed satellite (WINDS satellite) transmission in the Ka-band which is vulnerable to attenuation due to rain. Using the ITU-R proposed models for the prediction of rain attenuation gives a good estimation for the microwave propagation loss caused by rain for the temperate regions, but it underestimates the rain attenuation prediction for the monthly variation of rain rate by averaging annual rain rate for particular region. This study was carried out at the University of Rwanda/Huye Campus. The rain rates were predicted for 0.01 percentage of time from rainfall data measured during two months of July and August using the RD-80 Joss and Waldvogel Disdrometer. From the data collected and analyzed, compared with ITU-R model, we can see that where Rwanda region is situated in region K, what is different from the obtained results because the data are collected during months that coincide with a dry season.

Effects of simulated acid rain on saplings of Pinus massoniana and Cunninghamia lanceolata

The effects of simulated acid rain with pH values of 6.63 (control, 4.5, 3.0, and 2.0 on saplings of Pinus massoniana and Cunninghamia lanceolate, were studied. The results showed that the pH of C.lanceolate, leaf sap and soil decreased as the acidity of rainfall increased. The acid rain with very low pH had significant effects on the photosynthetic rates per plant, but not on that of the per unit weight of dry leaves. The respiration rates of the two species were stimulated. Root and leaf boimass, but not stem biomass, were also reduced tremendously during a seven months period.

Rain Attenuation Effects on 2.6 GHz WiMAX Networks Deployment in Ghana

WiMAX communication systems operating at 2.6 G frequencies are used for broadband multimedia and internet based services. At these frequencies, the signal will be affected by various propagation impairments such as rain attenuation, cloud attenuation, tropospheric scintillation, ionospheric scintillation, water vapour attenuation, and rain and ice depolarization. Among all the pro-pagation impairments, rain attenuation is the most important and critical parameter. In this research, rain attenuation is calculated at KNUST, Kumasi using ITU-R rain attenuation model. The preliminary results of the work will be used to calculate the attenuation experimentally and comparison can be made, which helps to develop a new rain attenuation model at 2.6 G bands. Rain attenuation is an important aspect of signal propagation above 2.6 GHz frequency. The attenuation time series generation from point rain rate measurement is crucial due to unavailability of actual signal measurements. In this research, a simple and realistic approach has been demonstrated for better estimation of rain attenuation using WiMAX-band signal propagation data and ground rain rate measurements in Ghana. The ITU-R model of rain attenuation has been modified by incorporating an effective slant path model. The effective slant path has been estimated and modeled in terms of a power-law relationship of rain rate data of 2007-2008. The methodology has been validated with the measured data of 2014. Comparison with ITU-R and GMET clearly demonstrates the improved predictability of the proposed model at the present tropical location.

N Accumulation and Translocation in Four Japonica Rice Cultivars at Different N Rates

Developing high-yielding rice(Oryza sativa L.)cultivars depends on having a better understanding of nitrogen(N) accumulation and translocation to the ear during the reproductive stage.Field experiments were carried out to evaluate the genetic variation for N accumulation and translocation in different Japonica rice cultivars at different N rates and to identify any relationship to grain yield in southeast China.Four Japonica cultivars with similar agronomic characteristics were grown at two experimental sites in 2004 with three N rates of 0,60,and 180 kg N ha^(-1).Dry weights and N contents of rice plants were measured at tillering,initiation,anthesis,and maturity.Grain yields exhibited significant differences (P<0.05)among the cultivars and N application rates.Increasing N rates improved N uptake at anthesis and maturity in all four cultivars(P<0.05).N translocation from vegetative organs to the grains increased with enhanced N rates (P<0.05).N translocation to the grains ranged from 9 to 64 kg N ha^(-1)and N-translocation efficiency from 33% to 68%. Grain yield was linear to N uptake at anthesis(r^2=0.78^(**))and N translocation(r^2=0.67^(**)).Thus,cultivars with a high N uptake at anthesis,low residual N in the straw at maturity,and appropriate low N fertilizer supply in southeast China should efficiently increase N-recovery rate while maintaining grain yield and soil fertility.

无线电波传播年平均到最坏月统计转换模式研究

最坏月分布特性是无线电系统设计和研制过程中需要考虑的重要指标,大多数无线电气象数据和传播数据只能提供年平均分布概率,这就要求提供最坏月分布和年平均分布之间的转换模式.本文首先给出了包含累积分布和互补累积分布完整的最坏月概念.然后分析了对流层散射传输损耗、降雨率和雨衰减、地面视距链路多径衰落等多种电波环境和传播特性的年平均和最坏月概率转换关系,并通过对比分析给出了最优的模型参数,其对应的均方根误差最小,其中对流层散射和雨衰减的均方根误差小于10%,同时论证了雨衰减的转换关系可以由降雨率的转换关系得到.本文的研究将有力支撑无线电系统的最坏月设计.

Modeling 3D Ex-Filtration Process of a Soak-Away Rain Garden

This paper presents a three-dimensional (3D) model developed using COMSOL Multiphysics to understand the 3D ex-filtration process of a soak-away rain garden. With a design hyetograph of 3-month average rainfall intensities of Singapore, it is found that the average vertical ex-filtration rate that is obtained by dividing the average vertical ex-filtration (drained through bottom of the soak-away rain garden, averaged over the simulation period = 720 min, and expressed in m3) by the surface area of the soak-away rain garden and the simulation time step is almost constant regardless of increase in saturated hydraulic conductivity (K) of the in-situ soil and the surface area of the soak-away rain garden as a percentage of catchment area. However, as depth to groundwater table which is measured from bottom of the filter media increases, in between 0.5 m and 1 m of depth to groundwater table, the average vertical ex-filtration rate decreases significantly (by around 15 - 20 mm/hr) and the decrease is almost twice, compared with that between 1 m and 1.5 m of depth to groundwater table. Furthermore, this study shows that for a given K of in-situ, K of filter media, and depth to groundwater table, as the surface area of the soak-away rain garden increases, the horizontal flow coefficient which is defined as the ratio between total horizontal ex-filtration (drained through sides of the soak-away rain garden, summed over the simulation period, and expressed in m3) and total vertical ex-filtration (drained through bottom of the soak-away rain garden, summed over the simulation period, and expressed in m3) decreases. Moreover, for a given surface area of the soak-away rain garden, K of in-situ, and depth to groundwater table, the horizontal flow coefficient decreases as K of the filter media increases. However, it is found that for a given surface area of the soak-away rain garden, K of in-situ, and K of filter media, the horizontal flow coefficient increases as depth to groundwater table increases.

风电叶片面漆的风场暴露环境和应用损伤分析

以实际挂机运行的风电叶片表面涂层为研究对象,分析了风机叶片涂层(面漆)暴露的环境因素及涂层(面漆)损伤模式,并对比分析面漆损伤速率与环境因素的关联,以期为叶片涂层设计提供参考。研究发现:对于叶片前缘区域,损伤机理主要是雨蚀,仅胶衣加面漆的体系无法提供有效的防护;叶片尖部及大面区域,损伤机理主要是紫外线老化损伤,面漆的损耗速率通常是5μm/a,现有胶衣(干膜125μm)加2道面漆(70~90μm)预计可提供叶片20a的防护。

受酸雨腐蚀混凝土不同应变率作用下抗压性能试验

根据我国酸雨类型配制了pH值为2.0的模拟酸雨溶液,在实验室采用全浸泡加速腐蚀方法,分析不同腐蚀天数下混凝土在4种不同应变率(1×10^(-3) s^(-1)、0.5×10^(-3) s^(-1)、1×10^(-2) s^(-1)和1×10-1 s-1)下混凝土的抗压性能,采用宏观结构和微观结构相结合的方法分析混凝土在酸腐蚀后其力学性能变化及劣化作用机理。结果表明:混凝土受酸雨腐蚀是H+和SO_(4)^(2-)综合作用的结果;随着腐蚀时间的延长,混凝土中性化程度增大,其质量和抗压强度都呈现出先增加后降低的变化趋势;相同腐蚀时间随着应变率增大,抗压强度增大而峰值应变逐渐减小,且不同应变率作用下在不同腐蚀阶段混凝土其抗压强度差值不同,初期阶段最大相差17.42%,后期最大差值仅为2.1%,故混凝土受腐蚀程度较大时应变率大小对抗压强度影响较小。

中国南方地基雨量计观测与星载测雨雷达探测降水的比较分析

利用热带测雨卫星(TRMM)上搭载的测雨雷达(PR)探测结果和中国40°N以南地区约430个台站雨量计观测结果,分析研究了1998 2005年中国南方地区这两种降水资料气候分布的异同。研究结果表明两种降水资料在2.5°空间水平分辨率上,所描述的中国南方降水率气候分布在多年年平均和季平均上具有较好的一致性,但在降水率极值和极值区范围大小等细节上两者还存在一定的差异,主要是地面雨量计结果相对PR结果偏高,其中中国南方50%以上地区两者相差在1 mm/d以内、30%的地区两者相差在1-2 mm/d,夏季差异可超过2 mm/d。对两种降水资料差异的原因分析表明,地面雨量计空间分布密度是影响两者差异的决定性因素,当格子内雨量计超过6个时,两者的相关系数大于0.7;夏季两种降水资料的相关性都比其他季节差,不论格子内的雨量计数量多与少;对流降水多发地区,两种降水资料之间的差异大于层云降水多发地。利用PR探测结果对夏季青藏高原多年月平均降水率分布及高原东、西部的降水特点的分析表明,6月高原东部出现2 mm/d左右的降水区,而在7和8月1 mm/d的降水区域基本覆盖了除高原西部以外的整个高原,其中高原中部地区出现降水率近3mm/d的大值区。月降水距平的时间演变表明,高原降水偏少月份要多于偏多月份。

利用2004年北京雨滴谱资料分析降水强度和雷达反射率因子的关系

在北京2004年的45次降水过程中,基于DISDROMETER仪器测量的雨滴谱资料计算每次降水的强度R和雷达反射率因子Z。结果表明,不同降水过程中,雷达反射率因子Z与降水强度R的幂指数关系中的指数b和系数a是不同的,这与不同降水过程的雨滴谱分布不同密切相关。综合分析这45次降水过程中的指数b和系数a,得到指数b和系数a呈正相关。接着,分别就指数b和系数a与平均降水强度、平均雷达反射率因子、平均特征直径和雨滴平均数密度之间关系做了详细的讨论。另外,基于这一年的降水雨滴谱资料,讨论了Z-R幂指数关系中指数b和系数a的月变化特征。分析结果表明,从4月到12月系数a和指数b呈现逐月递减的年变化特征。最后,文章就12个个例的特征直径Dm的特征进行了分析。结果显示,当特征直径Dm随时间保持不变时,降水强度R和雷达反射率因子Z之间存在线性相关的关系,即当特征直径Dm为常数时,Z-R关系的指数b为1。

冬、夏季热带及副热带穿透性对流气候特征分析

文中利用热带测雨卫星(TRMM)搭载的测雨雷达(PR)1998～2007年的探测结果,就热带及副热带地区穿透性对流的频次、条件降水强度及垂直廓线等特征进行了分析。研究结果表明:深对流和穿透性对流都主要发生在热带辐合带(ITCZ)、南太平洋辐合带(SPCZ)、亚洲季风区、20°N以南的非洲以及美洲等地区,它们的空间分布具有明显的地域性和季节变化特征,而且陆地深对流更容易发展成为穿透性对流,但绝大部分地区的穿透性对流频次不超过0.2%。对穿透性对流条件降水强度的分析表明,热带及副热带大部分地区的穿透性对流条件降水强度在10mm/h以上,且洋面的条件降水强度要比陆地大,但由于其频次较小导致其对总降水的贡献并不大。尽管深对流和穿透性对流降水廓线的外形比较相似,但相同的高度,深对流的降水强度要比穿透性对流偏小,而且这种差异随海陆和纬度的不同而有所区别。此外,热带地区(15°S～15°N)冬、夏季深对流和穿透性对流降水廓线都只存在较小差异,并没有显示出明显的季节变化。