Reliability and validity of the hidden hunger assessment scale in China-revised for high school students

Objective:Hidden hunger remains a severe public health problem that affects millions of people worldwide.In China,challenges related to dietary imbalance and hidden hunger persist.Micronutrient inadequacy deserves more attention among adolescents,given its vital role in their growth and development;however,this problem appears to have been largely ignored.High school students,in particular,are often at a high risk of hidden hunger but have limited assessment tools available.Therefore,this study aims to revise the hidden hunger assessment scale for high school students(HHAS-HSS)in China and assess its reliability and validity.Methods:Based on a literature review,expert consultation,pre-experiment,and formal survey,a hidden hunger assessment scale was revised for high school students.The formal survey involved 9336 high school students in 11 of the 16 cities in Anhui Province,China,and 9038 valid questionnaires were collected and included in the analysis.The item analysis,internal consistency reliability,test-retest reliability,content validity,exploratory factor analysis,and confirmatory factor analysis of the HHAS-HSS were examined.Results:The HHAS-HSS included a total of 4 dimensions and 12 items:"vegetables and food diversity"(three items),"fruits and dairy products"(three items),"micronutrient-dense foods"(four items),and"health condition and eating habits"(two items).The results showed a Cronbach's alpha of 0.758,a split-half reliability of 0.829,and a test-retest reliability of o.793,indicating good internal consistency.Using the Bartlett's test and Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin test(KMO)to test the exploratory factor analysis presented a four-factor model of the HHAS-HSS,the KMO0 value was 0.820(P<0.001),which indicated the possibility for factor confirmatory factor analysis.Using the maximum variance rotation method,four factors were obtained,and the cumulative variance explained rate was 57.974%.Confirmatory factor analysis also supported the division of the scale into four dimensions,and the fitting indices were x^(2)=1417.656,x^(2)/df=29.534,goodness-of-fit index=0.974,adjusted goodnessof-fit index=0.958,parsimonious goodness-of-fit index=0.600,normed fit index=0.938,incremental fit index=0.940,Tucker-Lewis index=0.917,comparative fit index=0.939,and root mean square error of approximation=0.056.Except for x^(2)/df,all the indices reached the fitting standard,and the above results showed that the construct validity of the scale reached an acceptable level.Conclusions:The HHAS-HSS has good validity and reliability for Chinese high school students.It is a convenient self-report measure of hidden hunger risk.

Psychological impact of cancer scale:Turkish validity and reliability study

BACKGROUND In the diagnosis and treatment of cancer,it is important to evaluate the components of psychological adjustment.Considering the key role of nurses in providing care to patients,it is important to evaluate patients,to determine highrisk patients and to use tools with acceptable validity and reliability to develop care plans.AIM To analyze the Turkish validity and reliability of The Psychological Impact of Cancer Scale(PICS).METHODS This methodological study was conducted with 257 cancer patients admitted to the oncology-haematology clinic and outpatient clinic of a University Hospital between February and October 2021.After the translation process of the scale,content and construct validity were conducted.Exploratory factor analysis(EFA)and confirmatory factor analysis(CFA)was examined with construct validity,while item analyses and internal consistency analysis were conducted for reliability.RESULTS Analyses and assessment results showed that the content validity index of the scale was 0.96.In the exploratory factor analysis of the Turkish adaptation study,total variance rate explained was found as 84.98%.Factor loads of all items were between 0.82 and 0.94.It was found that Cronbach Alpha values were between 0.860 and 0.930 and total scale Cronbach Alpha value was 0.844.EFA and CFA showed that Turkish form of 12-item and 4-factor.The Psychological Impact of Cancer Scale was confirmed with no changes to the original scale.CFA revealed good fit indices.CONCLUSION Turkish PICS is a valid and reliable measurement tool for the evaluation of individual’s psychological response to cancer diagnosis and treatment and for being used in clinical practice.

Investigating the Reliability and Validity of Chen and Starosta's Intercultural Sensitivity Scale (ISS) against Chinese Cultural Background

Intercultural Communication Competence (ICC), as one of the research fields of intercultural communication, has been given much importance from scholars all around the world. Intercultural sensitivity is one of the three dimensions in Dr Chen's ICC model. This research investigates the reliability and validity of Chen and Starosta's Intercultural Sensitivity Scale (ISS) (2000) against Chinese cultural background by using Chinese university students majoring in English as respondents.

Reliability and validity of the Chinese version of the Head and Neck Information Needs Questionnaire for patients with head and neck cancer and their caregivers

Objectives:This study aimed to assess the reliability and validity of the Chinese version of the Head and Neck Information Needs Questionnaire(HaNiQ).Methods:The HaNiQ was translated into a Chinese version using internationally recognized forwardand back-translation procedures.The reliability and validity of the HaNiQ were measured using Cronbach’s a coefficient,split-half reliability,exploratory factor analysis,and Pearson correlation analysis.Results:A total of 207 patients in different head and neck cancer(HNC)stages and 174 caregivers completed the Chinese version of the HaNiQ.Internal consistencies varied between good and very well(Cronbach’s α coefficient 0.74-0.90);the split-half coefficient and the content validity index(CVI)of the questionnaire were 83.5%and 83.33%,respectively.The cumulative contribution rates of the 5 subscales in patients with HNCand their caregivers were 62.41%and 61.19%,respectively.However,there are some differences between the Chinese questionnaire for caregiver and the original questionnaire regarding the attribution of items.Items 22,23,and 27 in the Psychosocial subscale of the English version were assigned to the Survivorship subscale in the Chinese version for caregivers.Conclusions:The results demonstrated that the Chinese version of the HaNiQ is a reliable and valid instrument for measuring the information needs of patients with HNC and that of their caregivers.Though the structure of the Chinese versionwas different from the English version for caregivers of HNC patients,the Chinese version of the HaNiQ appears to be reliable and would benefit from further testing.

Reliability and Validity Test of Questionnaire on the Adaptation Strategy of Cryosphere Changes in Arid Inland River Basin

[Objective] The aim was to test the reliability and validity of questionnaire on the adaptation strategy of cryosphere changes in arid inland river basin. [Method] A questionnaire on 'the adaptation strategy of cryosphere changes in arid inland river basin' was carried out in Urumchi River basin and Aksu River basin, and its reliability and validity were tested by means of statistical method, so as to investigate the stability and accuracy of questionnaire. [Result] Reliability analysis of questionnaire showed that the split-half reliability coefficient of questionnaire in Urumchi River basin and Aksu River basin was 0.729 and 0.750, respectively, and Cronbach’s α reliability coefficient was 0.613 and 0.616, respectively, which revealed that the questionnaire had good equivalence and internal consistency which reflected good reliability and stability. According to validity analysis on questionnaire, there was significant correlation between the score of most questions and questionnaire, and it indicated that questionnaire had high content validity. There were 8 common factors collected from 26 questions, which were summarized as agricultural planting, agricultural water conservation, life satisfaction, cultivated land variation, social integration sense, climate and cryosphere changes, capital input improved by environment and family economic condition, respectively. Meanwhile, the contribution rate of various questions in corresponding indexes was higher, and reflected structure was in full accord with questionnaire content, which revealed that questionnaire owned good construct validity. [Conclusion] With higher stability and accuracy, the questionnaire could determine the desired topic and content and was suitable for the study on the perception of common people and choices of adaptive strategy under cryosphere changes in arid inland river basin in northwestern China.

Interpretation of Key Concepts in Language Testing: Validity, Validation and Reliability

Language testing is an important link in language teaching,in this paper,the two important criteria of language test the reliability and validity has carried on the detailed elaboration,in order to a language teacher proposition and evaluation test more scientific.

Reliability and validity of sub-axial injury classification in clinical application

Objective To evaluate the clinical reliability and validity of the sub-axial injury classification (SLIC) system proposed by the Spine Trauma Study Group (STSG) in 2007. Methods Thirty cases of cervical injury were randomly chosen

Food Frequency Questionnaire for Chinese Children Aged 12-17 Years: Validity and Reliability

Objective The primary objective of this study was to examine the validity and reliability of a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire(FFQ) among Chinese children aged 12-17 years. Methods A semi-quantitative 72-food item FFQ was developed for children aged 12-17 years. The reliability and validity of this FFQ were evaluated against 24-h dietary recalls(24 h DRs) to measure the consumption of foods and nutrients. We administered two FFQs and three DRs to children(N = 160) over a period of 1 month to evaluate the reliability and validity. Reliability was examined by quartile agreement and intraclass correlation coefficients(ICCs), and validity was examined by quartile agreement, Bland-Altman plots and correlation with DRs. Results For reliability, the ICCs between the two FFQs ranged from 0.21 to 0.76 for foods and nutrients, and the quartile agreement ranged from 70.0% to 95.0% in the same or adjacent quartiles. Spearman’s correlation coefficients of foods and nutrients between the second FFQ and the 24 h DRs ranged from-0.04 to 0.59. The Bland-Altman plots demonstrated good agreement across the range of intakes among nutrients. The quartile agreement ranged from 50.0% to 100.0%, with infrequent misclassification. Conclusion The FFQ assessment of dietary intakes demonstrated acceptable relative validity and high reproducibility for Chinese children aged 12-17 years.

Reliability and Validity of Addiction Severity Index in Drug Users with Methadone Maintenance Treatment in Guizhou Province, China

Objective To evaluate the reliability and validity of the Chinese version of addiction severity index （ASI）-5th version （ASI-C-5）, in illegal drug users receiving methadone maintenance treatment （MMT） in China. Methods One hundred and eighty-six heroin addicts （144 men and 42 women） receivihg MMT at three clinics in Guizhou province, southwest China, were recmited. They were all interviewed with a questionnaire of ASI-C-5 and 35 were re-interviewed at an interval of seven days to assess its test-retest reliability. Results Cronbach＇s alpha for internal consistency of CSs varied from 0.60 to 0.81 in all domains. Test-retest reliability of composite scores （CSs） of ASI-C-5 were satisfactory （r=0.38-0.97）. Based on item analysis and expert＇s suggestions, five items were deleted and one item was modified in ASI-C-5. Criterion validity of ASI-C-5 was found acceptable, as compared to addicts＇ self-rating anxiety scale （SAS） and self-rating depression scale （SDS） （r=0.59 and 0.45） except for social support rating scale （SSRS）. Conclusions ASI-C-5 can be used for heroin addicts receiving MMT with acceptable reliability and validity.

Cronbach's a reliability, concurrent validity, and factorial structure of the Death Depression Scale in an Iranian hospital staff sample

Objective: Death depression is an important component in the process of death and dying. Death depression is the second element of death. Depression is one of the important features in death distress. The aim of this study was to explore the performance of the Farsi version of the Death Depression Scale with an Iranian convenience sample of nurses (n =106).Methods: Nurses were selected using a convenience sampling method, and completed the Death Depression Scale (DDS), Death Concern Scale (DCS), Collett-Lester Fear of Death Scale (CLFDS), Reasons for Death Fear Scale (RDFS), Templer's Death Anxiety Scale (DAS), and Death Obsession Scale (DOS). Results: The results of exploratory factor analysis on DDS identified 4 factors (56.16%of variance). Factor 1 labeled"Death sadness", Factor 2 labeled"Death finality/end and Death dread/fear", Factor 3 labeled"Death despair and Death depression", and Factor 4 labeled"Death loneliness". Cronbach's a coefficient was 0.84, Spearman-Brown coefficient 0.85, and Guttman Split-Half coefficient 0.81 The DDS correlated 0.40 with the DCS, 0.39 with the CLFDS, 0.50 with the DAS, 0.35 with the RDFS, and 0.44 with the DOS, indicating good construct and criterion-related validity. Concurrent validity for the DDS with the other scales were significant. Conclusions: The DDS has good validity and reliability, and it can use in clinical and research settings.

Reliability and validity of the Chinese version of CAHS among renal transplant recipients

Purpose:The purpose of this study was to assess the applicability of the Chinese version of Cognitive Appraisal of Health Scale(CAHS)for renal transplant recipients,and to make a preliminary evaluation of its reliability and validity.Methods:A total of 147 renal transplant recipients who attended a transplant follow-up clinic in a Level 3,Grade A hospital in Beijing were asked to complete the Chinese version of CAHS.Following completion the reliability and validity of the scale were tested.Results:The Cronbach alpha coefficient of Chinese version of CAHS among subscales of threat,harm,challenge and benign-irrelevant were 0.857,0.806,0.680,0.100 respectively;and the test-retest reliability coefficient were 0.791,0.601,0.624,0.470(p<0.01).Spearman correlation was used to test the four subscales'correlation between the item score and the total score,in which threat was 0.598e0.748,challenge was 0.517e0.651,harm was 0.528 e0.735 and benign-irrelevant was 0.507e0.651.These correlations were all statistically significant.The four common factors were extracted using factor analysis.The four factors accounted for 50.356%of the total variance.The SF-36 Physical Component Summary(PCS)and Mental Component Summary(MCS)scores were correlated with each subscale score in CAHS.Threat was weakly correlated to PCS,and was moderately correlated to MCS;harm was moderately correlated to both PCS and MCS;challenge was weakly correlated to both PCS and MCS and benign-irrelevant did not correlate with neither PCS nor MCS.The Chinese version of CAHS has been shown to have good discriminate and convergent validity.Conclusion:The Chinese version of the CAHS was supported to be applicable and to provide measurable performance in renal transplant recipients,thus it can be utilized with renal transplant recipients in China.

Reliability and Validity of the Chinese Version of the Lymphedema Quality of Life Questionnaire

Objective To study the reliability and validity of the Chinese version of the Lymphedema Quality of Life Questionnaire(LYMQOL)in lymphedema patients.Methods LYMQOL was translated into Chinese.The Chinese version of the LYMQOL was distributed with the official Wechat account"Lymphedema Channel"to lymphedema patients who were recruited from October 28^(th),2020 to February 23^(rd),2021.Patients with upper limb lymphedema and lower limb lymphedema completed the LYMQOL-ARM subscale and the LYMQOL-LEG subscale separately,at enrollment,1 week later,and 1 month later.Reliability,validity,feasibility,responsiveness and average time required for completing the questionnaire were assessed.Results A total of 195 patients participated in the study.The Chinese questionnaire showed high reliability with Cronbach’sαcoefficients of 0.849-0.902 for the LYMQOL-ARM and intraclass correlation coefficient(ICC)of 0.848-0.884 and Cronbach’sαcoefficients of 0.726-0.902 for the LYMQOL-LEG and ICC of 0.863-0.900.The LYMQOL showed moderate to good correlations with the EQ-5 D(0.4<r<0.6,P<0.01;for the LYMQOLARM,n=95,for the LYMQOL-LEG,n=102).Responsiveness analysis suggested that quality of life of upper limb lymphedema patients decreased after 1 month(P<0.05).The average time of patients to finish the questionnaire was approximately 12 minutes.Conclusions The Chinese version of the LYMQOL is easy to answer,comprehensive and appropriate in length,and has good reliability and validity.It may be utilized to assist treatment decision-making and track changes in clinical setting or research for lymphedema.

Reliability and concurrent validity of postural asymmetry measurement in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis

AIM To investigate the reliability and concurrent validity of the Baseline~? Body Level/Scoliosis meter for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis postural assessment in three anatomical planes.METHODS This is an observational reliability and concurrent validity study of adolescent referrals to the Orthopaedic department for scoliosis screening at KarolinskaUniversity Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden between MarchMay 2012. A total of 31 adolescents with idiopathic scoliosis(13.6 ± 0.6 years old) of mild-moderate curvatures(25°± 12°) were consecutively recruited. Measurement of cervical, thoracic and lumbar curvatures, pelvic and shoulder tilt, and axial thoracic rotation(ATR) were performed by two trained physiotherapists in one day. The intraclass correlation coefficient(ICC) was used to determine the inter-examiner reliability(ICC2,1) and the intra-rater reliability(ICC3,3) of the Baseline~? Body Level/Scoliosis meter. Spearman's correlation analyses were used to estimate concurrent validity between the Baseline~? Body Level/Scoliosis meter and Gold Standard Cobb angles from radiographs and the Orthopaedic Systems Inc. Scoliometer.RESULTS There was excellent reliability between examiners for thoracic kyphosis(ICC2,1 = 0.94), ATR(ICC2,1 = 0.92) and lumbar lordosis(ICC2,1 = 0.79). There was adequate reliability between examiners for cervical lordosis(ICC2,1 = 0.51), however poor reliability for pelvic and shoulder tilt. Both devices were reproducible in the measurement of ATR when repeated by one examiner(ICC3,3 0.98-1.00). The device had a good correlation with the Scoliometer(rho = 0.78). When compared with Cobb angle from radiographs, there was a moderate correlation for ATR(rho = 0.627).CONCLUSION The Baseline~? Body Level/Scoliosis meter provides reliable transverse and sagittal cervical, thoracic and lumbar measurements and valid transverse plan measurements of mild-moderate scoliosis deformity.

Reliability and validity of the Chinese version of spiritual needs questionnaire with 27 items (SpNQ-Ch-27) in cancer patients

Objective: To evaluate the reliability and validity of the Chinese version of the Spiritual Needs Questionnaire with 27 items (SpNQ-Ch-27) for cancer patients.Methods: A total of 457 cancer patients in a tertiary hospital in Xinjiang from March to July in 2017 were investigated by using the SpNQ-Ch-27 and convenient sampling method.They were recruited to validate the discrimination,reliability,and validity of the scale.According to the odd and even questionnaire numbers,data were divided into two groups to do exploratory factor analysis group and confirmatory factor analysis,respectively.Results: SpNQ-Ch-27 included 27 items and six factors,which were extracted by using factor analysis.It could explain 63.08% of the total variance.The total scores of each dimension and the SpNQ-Ch-27 were highly correlated,and the correlation coefficient was from 0.58 to 0.78.For the CFA,the overall fitting ideal was x2/df=2.00,RMSEA =0.07,IFI =0.93,NFI =0.86,CFI =0.92,TLI =0.90;Cronbach's α =0.90;the dimensions of Cronbach's α =0.63-0.95;split-half reliability was 0.82,dimensions were 0.68-0.95.Conclusion: SpNQ-Ch-27 is applicable for Chinese cancer patients with better validity and higher internal consistency,and it can be used as a tool to assess the spiritual needs of cancer patients.

Reliability and validity of the Chinese version of the new fear of hypoglycemia scale: FH-15

Objective:This study aimed to evaluate the reliability and validity of the Chinese version of the Fear of Hypoglycemia scale with 15 items(FH-15).Methods:After obtaining the original author's authorization,the English version of the FH-15 scale was translated,back translated,and culturally debugged to obtain the Chinese version of FH-15.A convenient sampling method was used to extract patients with type 2 diabetes from four tertiary hospitals in Tianjin.A total of 408 patients with type 2 diabetes were investigated in the hospital to test the reliability and validity of Chinese version FH-15 scale.Results:The content validity index of the scale was 0.92,and the content validity index of each item was 0.8-1.0.The exploratory factor analysis extracted three common factors(fear,avoidance,and interference),which contained 15 items,and the cumulative variance contribution rate was 71.245%.The confirmatory factor analysis results showed that the model fit was better at 1.981 x2/df,GFI=0.901,CGI=0.962,TLI=0.952,and RMSEA=0.070.The cut-off value for the total hypoglycemia fear scale was 30.5.The Cronbach'sαcoefficient of the three dimensions of the scale was 0.918,the Cronbach'sαcoefficient of each dimension is 0.876-0.916,the test-retest reliability was 0.903,and the test-retest reliability of each factor was 0.733-0.930.Conclusion:The Chinese version of the FH-15 scale can be considered reliable and valid.The item expression is concise,clear,and easy to understand.It is suitable for clinical practice as an initial screening tool to identify and evaluate the severity of fear of hypoglycemia in patients with type 2 diabetes.

Reliability and validity of Chinese version of Cataldo Lung Cancer Stigma Scale

Purpose:To translate and apply the Cataldo Lung Cancer Stigma Scale(CLCSS)for Chinese populations and test the reliability and validity of the modified scale.Method:A total of 150 lung cancer patients were recruited from three tertiary hospitals in Shandong province and were tested using the Chinese version of CLCSS to assess its reliability and validity.Result:The Cronbach’s a coefficient of the Chinese version of CLCSS and the four subscales ranged from 0.599 to 0.884,and the testeretest reliability ranged from 0.601 to 0.881.The content validity index of the scale was 0.875.Four factors were extracted by exploratory factor analysis that explained 58.6%of the total variance.Conclusion:The Chinese version of CLCSS is a reliable and valid measure of stigma among Chinese patients with lung cancer.

Establishing the Reliability and Validity of Health in Motion^©Automated Falls Screening Tool

Introduction: Blue Marble Health Company has created a digital fall risk screening tool (Health in Motion&#169;) that can be used by means of self-report (touch/mouse) or by means of motion capture (Microsoft Kinect Sensor). Health in Motion&#169;consists of automated versions of the Fall Risk Question-naire, 30-Second Chair Stand Test, and the One Leg Stance Test. Methods: We compared the three methods (self-report, sensor, and clinical standard measurement) using stopwatch and observation in 15 community-dwelling older adults, aged 63 - 80 years old. Each version was completed three times each in random order, for a total of nine trials. Results: Health in Motion&#169;falls screening tool accessible via self-report and sensor is a valid and reliable automated at-home self-assessment for falls risk. Conclusion: Results support the use of Health in Motion&#169;falls screening tools as viable alternatives to standard falls risk assessments for use by older adults at home.

Reliability and validity of Chinese version of a tool to assess the quality of life in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis in patients with interstitial lung disease

Objective:This paper aims to determine the reliability and validity of the Chinese version of a tool that assesses the quality of life in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis(cATAQ-IPF)in patients with interstitial lung disease(ILD).Methods:We used the process of scale introduction to establish cATAQ-IPF.The content validity of the scale was evaluated by six experts.A total of 92 patients with ILD completed the cATAQ-IPF,St.George's respiratory questionnaire(SGRQ),and The Medical Research Council dyspnoea scale at the baseline,and 15 patients completed cATAQ-IPF at the follow-up period 2 weeks later.Thus,yielding data were used to assess various psychometric properties of cATAQ-IPE Intraclass correlation coefficient(ICC),Cronbach'sαcoefficient,content validity index(CVI),item-level CVI(I-CVI),Pearson's coefficients,criterion-relation validity,and known-group validity were used for data analysis.Results:The cATAQ-IPF showed excellent test-retest reliability(ICC=0.95),except for the therapy domain(Cronbach'sα=0.60)and acceptable internal consistency(Cronbach'sα=0.96 for the total).The scale-level CVI was 0.80,and the I-CVI was in the range of 0.78-1.00.The total cATAQ-IPF score was strongly correlated with the SGRQ total score(r=0.71,P<0.01).The cATAQ-IPF score of patients with ILD was 250.74±47.39,and that of patients with IPF was 287.90±22.56.Patients with IPF possessed considerable impairments in health-related quality of life according to the cATAQ-IPF score(t=4.94,P<0.01).Conclusions:The cATAQ-IPF is a reliable and valid instrument for the evaluation of quality of life of Chinese patients with various forms of ILD.

Reliability and validity of the Tibetan medicine constitution scale: a cross-sectional study of the general population in Beijing, China

Background:The constitutional theory is an important aspect of Tibetan medicine,however a quantitative measurement tool for constitution identification still does not exist.The objective of this study is to evaluate the reliability and validity of a Tibetan medicine constitution scale(TMCS)that consists of three sub-scales and 31 items.Methods:From June to July 2019,622 people from the general population in Beijing,China,aged 18 to 60 were investigated.We employed Cronbach’s alpha(α),split-half reliability,and test-retest reliability to determine the reliability of the scale.The content validity and contract validity of the TMCS were evaluated using factor analysis and correlation analysis based on Tibetan medicine theory.The items were screened according to the reliability test results.Results:After the items were screened,22 items remained in the scale.The Cronbach’s alpha value for the internal consistency reliability of the TMCS was 0.754(95%confidence interval(CI):0.700–0.761).The correlation coefficient for the two-week test-retest of the total score was 0.726(95%CI:0.571–0.834).The split-half coefficient was 0.689(95%CI:0.640–0.734).The scale can be explained by eight potential factors,including morphological structure,physiological function,personality,adaptability,etc.The body mass index was negatively correlated with the score of the sub-rlung scale(r=−0.376),slightly positively correlated with the sub-mkhris pa scale(r=0.099),and positively correlated with the sub-bad kan scale(r=0.362).Conclusion:The TMCS is a reliable and valid instrument that can be used to assess the body constitution of the general population in Beijing,China.Future studies are needed to explore the differences in biological characteristics among the constitutional types and the association between constitution and disease.

On Reliability and Validity in Language Testing

This paper dwells on the two important factors-reliability and validity in language testing: explain the concepts of reliability and validity; factors influencing reliability and validity; possible ways to achieve high reliability and validity; comments on the modern language testing tendency on reliability and validity and authors' own ideas.