Contribution of Surface Waves to Sea Surface Temperatures in the Arctic Ocean

The aim of our study was to examine the contribution of surface waves from WAVEWATCH-III(WW3)to the variation in sea surface temperature(SST)in the Arctic Ocean.The simulated significant wave height(SWH)were validated against the products from Haiyang-2B(HY-2B)in 2021,obtaining a root mean squared error(RMSE)of 0.45 with a correlation of 0.96 and scatter index of 0.18.The wave-induced effects,i.e.,wave breaking and mixing induced by nonbearing waves resulting in changes in radiation stress and Stokes drift,were calculated from WW3,ERA-5 wind,SST,and salinity data from the National Centers for Environmental Prediction and were taken as forcing fields in the Stony Brook Parallel Ocean Model.The results showed that an RMSE of 0.81℃ with wave-induced effects was less than the RMSE of 1.11℃ achieved without the wave term compared with the simulated SST with the measurements from Argos.Considering the four wave effects and sea ice freezing,the SST in the Arctic Ocean decreased by up to 1℃ in winter.Regression analysis revealed that the SWH was linear in SST(values without subtraction of waves)in summer and autumn,but this behavior was not observed in spring or winter due to the presence of sea ice.The interannual variation also presented a negative relationship between the difference in SST and SWH.

Analysis of Sea Surface Temperature Cooling in Typhoon Events Passing the Kuroshio Current

The aim of this study is to investigate the sea surface temperature(SST) cooling as typhoons pass the Kuroshio Current.A numerical circulation model,denoted as the Stony Brook Parallel Ocean Model(sbPOM),was used to simulate the SST,which includes four wave-induced effect terms(i.e.,radiation stress,nonbreaking waves,Stokes drift,and breaking waves) simulated using the third-generation wave model,called WAVEWATCH-Ⅲ(WW3).The significant wave height(SWH) measurements from the Jason-2 altimeter were used to validate the WW3-simulated results,yielding a root mean square error(RMSE) of less than 0.50 m and a correlation coefficient(COR) of approximately 0.93.The water temperature measured from the Advanced Research and Global Observation Satellite was applied to validate the model simulation.Accordingly,the RMSE of the SST is 0.92℃ with a COR of approximately 0.99.As revealed in the sbPOM-simulated SST fields,a reduction in the SST at the Kuroshio Current region was observed as a typhoon passed,although the water temperature of the Kuroshio Current is relatively high.The variation of the SST is consistent with that of the current,whereas the maximum SST lagged behind the occurrence of the peak SWH.Moreover,the Stokes drift plays an important role in the SST cooling after analyzing four wave-induced terms in the background of the Kuroshio Current.The sensitivity experiment also showed that the accuracy of the water temperature was significantly reduced when including breaking waves,which play a negative role in the inside part of the ocean.The variation in the mean mixing layer depth(MLD) showed that a typhoon could enhance the mean MLD in the Kuroshio Current area in September and October,whereas a typhoon has little influence on the mean MLD in the Kuroshio Current area in May.Moreover,the mean MLD rapidly decreased with the weakening of the strong wind force and wave-induced effects when a typhoon crossed the Kuroshio Current.

Seasonal influence of freshwater discharge on spatio-temporal variations in primary productivity, sea surface temperature, and euphotic zone depth in the northern Bay of Bengal

Ocean productivity is the foundation of marine food web,which continuously removes atmospheric carbon dioxide and supports life at sea and on land.Spatio-temporal variability of net primary productivity(NPP),sea surface temperature(SST),sea surface salinity(SSS),mixed layer depth(MLD),and euphotic zone depth(EZD) in the northern B ay of Bengal(BoB) during three monsoon seasons were examined in this study based on remote sensing data for the period 2005 to 2020.To compare the NPP distribution between the coastal zones and open BoB,the study area was divided into five zones(Z1-Z5).Results suggest that most productive zones Z2 and Zl are located at the head bay area and are directly influenced by freshwater discharge together with riverine sediment and nutrient loads.Across Z1-Z5,the NPP ranges from 5 315.38 mg/(m^(2)·d) to 346.7 mg/(m^(2)·d)(carbon,since then the same).The highest monthly average NPP of 5 315.38 mg/(m^(2)·d) in February and 5 039.36 mg/(m^(2)·d) in June were observed from Z2,while the lowest monthly average of 346.72 mg/(m^(2)·d) was observed in March from Z4,which is an oceanic zone.EZD values vary from 6-154 m for the study area,and it has an inverse correlation with NPP concentration.EZD is deeper during the summer season and shallower during the wintertime,with a corresponding increase in productivity.Throughout the year,monthly SST shows slight fluctuation for the entire study area,and statistical analysis shows a significant correlation among NPP,and EZD,overall positive between NPP and MLD,whereas no significant correlation among SSS,and SST for the northern BoB.Long-term trends in SST and productivity were significantly po sitive in head bay zones but negatively productive in the open ocean.The findings in this study on the distribution of NPP,SST,SSS,MLD,and EZD and their seasonal variability in five different zones of BoB can be used to further improve the management of marine resources and overall environmental condition in response to climate changes in BoB as they are of utmost relevance to the fisheries for the three bordering countries.

The Relationship between Extreme Precipitation Events in East Africa during the Short Rainy Season and Indian Ocean Sea Surface Temperature

The East African short rainy season (October-November-December) is one of the major flood seasons in the East African region. The amount of rainfall during the short rainy season is closely related to the lives of the people and the socio-economic development of the area. By using precipitation data and sea surface temperature data, this study reveals the spatial and temporal variation patterns of extreme precipitation during the East African short rainy season. Key findings include significant rainfall variability, with Tanzania experiencing the highest amounts in December due to the southward shift of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), while other regions receive less than 100 mm. Extreme rainfall events (90th percentiles) are evenly distributed, averaging 2 to 10 days annually. Historical data shows maximum seasonal rainfall often peaks at 15 mm, with frequent occurrences of daily rainfall exceeding 10 mm during OND. Additionally, a positive correlation (0.48) between OND precipitation extremes and Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) anomalies is statistically significant. These findings highlight the climatic variability and potential trends in extreme rainfall events in East Africa, providing valuable insights for regional climate adaptation strategies.

Multitime scale variations of sea surface temperature in the China seas based on the HadISST dataset

The variability of the sea surface temperature（SST） in the China seas has been studied in seasonal,interannual and interdecadal scales based on the monthly data of HadISST spanning from 1870 to 2007. The main results obtained are SST in the China offshore changes most actively at the seasonal scale with the intensity diminishing from north to south,as the temperature differences between summer and winter reaching 17 and 4 C in the northern and southern areas,respectively. Moreover,seasonal variation near the coastal regions seems relatively stronger than that far from the coastline;significant interannual variations are detected,with the largest positive anomaly occurring in 1998 in the overall area. But as far as different domains are concerned,there exists great diversity,and the difference is also found between winter and summer. Differed from the seasonal variations,where the strongest interannual variability takes place,resides to the south of that of the seasonal ones in the northern section,nevertheless in the South China Sea,the most significant interannual variability is found in the deep basin;interdecadal changes of summer,winter and annual mean SST in different domains likewise present various features. In addition,a common dominant warming in recent 20 a are found in the overall China offshore with the strongest center located in the vicinity of the Changjiang Estuary in the East China Sea,which intensifies as high as 1.3 C during the past 130 a.

Study of relationship between wave transport and sea surface temperature anomaly(SSTA) in the tropical Pacific

Large-scale water transport is one of the key factors that affect sea surface temperature anomaly（SSTA） in the eastern equatorial Pacific（EEP）.The relationship between the wave transport in the tropical Pacific and the SSTA in the EEP is examined by different methods,including band-pass filtering,period analysis,correlation analysis,significant analysis,and empirical orthogonal function（EOF） analysis.We have found that the eastward shift of the wave transport anomaly in the tropical Pacific,with a period of 2 a and enhancing the transport of warm waters from the western Pacific warm pool,precedes the increase of sea surface temperature（SST） in the EEP.The wave transport and the SSTA in the EEP have a maximum correlation of 0.65 with a time-lag of 6 months（transport variation precedes the temperature）.The major periods（3.7 a and 2.45 a） of the wave transport variability,as revealed by the EOF analysis,appear to be consistent with the SSTA oscillation cycle in the EEP.Based on the first occurrence of a significant SSTA in the Ni？o 3 region（5°S–5°N,90°–150°W）,two types of warm events are defined.The wave transport anomalies in two types present predominantly the west anomaly in the tropical Pacific,it is that the wave transport continues transport warm water from west to east before the onset of the warm event.The impact of wave-induced water transport on the SSTA in the EEP is confirmed by the heat flux of the wave transport.The wave transport exerts significant effect on the SSTA variability in the EEP and thus is not neglectable in the further studies.

Long-term changes in sea surface temperature(SST)within the southern Levantine Basin

Knowledge of sea surface temperature(SST)behaviour is vital for long-term climate scenarios.This study highlights essential outcomes about the distinguishable and unsurprising warming of the SST along the southern border of the Levantine Basin.The analysis is based on monthly SST data for the period 1948-2018.The southern Levantine Basin has undergone SST increase,during the last 71 years.In this study,a consistent warming trend has been found for the analysed SST data series,with a rate of 0.04℃/a,i.e.,0.4℃/(10 a).From 1975 to 1991 the mean annual SST was 17.1℃,and this increased to be 19.2℃,over the period 2002-2018.Results revealed two opposite trends of variability:a decreasing trend(−0.06℃/a)over the period 1975-1991,and an increasing trend(0.2℃/a)from 2002 to 2018.Over the period 1948-2018,positive mean annual SST anomalies had an average of 1.8℃,and negative anomalies had an average of−1.1℃.The lowest SST total increase was found from January to April,with values about 0.03℃,while the highest warming appeared from June to September.The driving mechanisms behind the SST changes need to be more investigated,to understand the future trends and impacts of climate change in the Levantine Basin.

THE CORRELATION BETWEEN THE PACIFIC SEA SURFACE TEMPERATURE(SST) and PRECIPITATION OVER NW CHINA

With the singular value decomposition (SVD), correlation analysis has been conducted between the Pacific Ocean sea surface temperature (SST) and northwestern China precipitation over March May (MAM). The result shows that there is good relationship between the North Pacific and spring precipitation in northwestern China. When the SST is of the peak El Ni駉 phase, precipitation is less over this part of the country except for the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau; when the SST for the months DJF is of the mature El Ni駉 phase, precipitation is more over the region in the subsequent March May; when the North Pacific SST for DJF is of the La Ni馻 pattern, precipitation is less over the plateau in the subsequent March May. For the Pacific SST, the westerly drift, kuroshio current, Californian current and north equatorial current are all significantly correlating with the March May precipitation in northwestern China. Specifically, the SST in DJF over the kuroshio current region is out of phase with the precipitation in northern Xinjiang, i.e. when the former is low, the latter is more. In northwestern China, regions in which March May precipitation response to the variation of SST in the Pacific Ocean are northern Xinjiang, the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and areas off its northeastern part, the desert basin and western part of the Corridor of the Great Bend of Yellow River valley (Corridor).

Comparison between Infrared and Microwave Radiometers for Retrieving Sea Surface Temperature

The basic principles of sea surface temperature （SST） remote sensing using infrared and microwave radiometers are introduced, and the differences between two sensors for retrieving sea surface temperature are investigated. The ground resolution, atmospheric effect, sea surface wind, skin depth and so on have important influence on precision of sea surface temperature retrieved by two sensors. The better understanding of the advantage and disadvantage of sea surface temperature detected by infrared and microwave radiometers would help us to imply SST remote sensing data more effectively and correctly.

Sea Surface Temperature Simulation of Tropical and North Pacific Basins Using a Hybrid Coordinate Ocean Model (HYCOM)

A Hybrid Coordinate Ocean Model （HYCOM） is used to simulate the sea surface temperature of the Tropical and North Pacific. Based on the different combinations of two air-Sea flux data sets （COADS and ECMWF） and two bulk parameter formulas （non-constant and constant）, four numerical experiments are carried out. The following conclusions can be deduced from the numerical results. （1） The numerical results using non-constant bulk parameter formula are much better than those using constant one. In the Pacific area from 40°N to 20°S, the annual average SST obtained from the experiment using non-constant bulk parameter formula is 0.21 ℃ higher than that from the satellite-based SST climatology （the pathfinder data）. However, the difference is 0.63 ℃ for the experiment when the using constant one. （2） HYCOM successfully simulates the monthly variation of climatological SST in tropical and north Pacific basins and monthly spatial variation of Western Pacific Warm Pool. Especially in the Pacific area from 40°N to 20°S, the difference of the seasonal averaged SST between pathfinder data and the result of experiment 2 （using COADS data set and non-constant bulk parameter formula） is only about 0.02 ℃. （3）The simulation results using different Air-Sea flux data are different and the difference is very large in some regions. In the northwest of the model region, the annual average SST obtained from experiment 2 （using COADS data set） is 1℃ higher than that obtained from experiment 4 （using ECMWF data set）. Contrarily, the result of experiment 4 is 1 ℃ larger than that of experiment 2 in the southeast of the model region. The largest difference is about 4 ℃ occurred near the area of 58°N, 140°E and the Bohai sea.

The Singular Value Decomposition Analysis between Summer Precipitation in the Dongting Lake Region and the Global Sea Surface Temperature

By dint of the summer precipitation data from 21 stations in the Dongting Lake region during 1960-2008 and the sea surface temperature(SST) data from NOAA,the spatial and temporal distributions of summer precipitation and their correlations with SST are analyzed.The coupling relationship between the anomalous distribution in summer precipitation and the variation of SST has between studied with the Singular Value Decomposition(SVD) analysis.The increase or decrease of summer precipitation in the Dongting Lake region is closely associated with the SST anomalies in three key regions.The variation of SST in the three key regions has been proved to be a significant previous signal to anomaly of summer rainfall in Dongting region.

The effects of different sea surface temperature distributions over the western Pacific on the summer monsoon properties

A modified and improved primitive equation numerical model with p-sigma incorporated vertical coordinates is used to simulate the effects of different sea surface temperature distributions over the western Pacific on the summer monsoon properties. The different sea surface temperature (SST) distributions are automatically generated in the time integrations by using two different SST models, one of which is called the deep ocean model (DOM) and the other the shallow ocean model (SOM). The SST generated by the DOM has the distribution pattern of the initial SST which is similar to the pattern in the cold water years over the western Pacific, while the SST generated by the SOM has the pattern similar to that in the warm water years. The differences between the experimental results by using DOM and SOM are analyzed in detail. The analyses indicate that the most basic and important characteristics of the summer monsoon climate can be simulated successfully in both experiments, that means the climatic properties in the monsoonal climate regions are mainly determined by the seasonal heating, the contrast between the land and the sea, the topography, and the physical properties of the underlying surfaces. However, the differences between the two experiments tell us that the climatic properties in the summer monsoon regions in the cold water year and the warm water year do differ from each other in details. In the warm water year, the thermal contrast between the land and the sea becomes weaker. Over the warm water area, the upward motions are induced and the dynamical conditions favorable for the convective activities are formed, the Somali low-level cross equatorial current is somewhat weakened, while the cross equatorial currents, east of 90°E, are strongly strengthened, the precipitation amount in the tropical regions largely increases, and the precipitation over the coastal regions increases, too. However the precipitation over the southeast China and its coastal area decreases. The precipitation amount mainly depends on the strength of the convective activity.

The long-term variability of sea surface temperature in the seas east of China in the past 40 a

The global surface temperature change since the mid-19th century has caused general concern and intensive study. However, long-term changes in the marginal seas, including the seas east of China, are not well understood because long-term observations are sparse and, even when they exist, they are over limited areas. Preliminary results on the long-term variability of sea surface temperature （SST） in summer and winter in the seas east of China during the period of 1957-2001 are reported using the Ocean Science Database of Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, the coastal hydrological station in situ and satellite data. The results show well-defined warming trends in the study area. However warming and cooling trends vary from decade to decade, with steady and rapid warming trends after the 1980s and complicated spatial patterns. The distribution of SST variation is intricate and more blurred in the areas far away from the Kuroshio system. Both historical and satellite data sets show significant warming trends after 1985. The warming trends are larger and spread to wider areas in winter than in summer, which means decrease in the seasonal cycle of SST probably linked with recently observed increase of the tropical zooplankton species in the region. Spatial structures of the SST trends are roughly consistent with the circulation pattern especially in winter when the meridional SST gradients are larger, suggesting that a horizontal advection may play an important role in the long-term SST variability in winter.

Effects of Meridional Sea Surface Temperature Changes on Stratospheric Temperature and Circulation

Using a state-of-the-art chemistry-climate model,we analyzed the atmospheric responses to increases in sea surface temperature （SST）.The results showed that increases in SST and the SST meridional gradient could intensify the subtropical westerly jets and significantly weaken the northern polar vortex.In the model runs,global uniform SST increases produced a more significant impact on the southern stratosphere than the northern stratosphere,while SST gradient increases produced a more significant impact on the northern stratosphere.The asymmetric responses of the northern and southern polar stratosphere to SST meridional gradient changes were found to be mainly due to different wave properties and transmissions in the northern and southern atmosphere.Although SST increases may give rise to stronger waves,the results showed that the effect of SST increases on the vertical propagation of tropospheric waves into the stratosphere will vary with height and latitude and be sensitive to SST meridional gradient changes.Both uniform and non-uniform SST increases accelerated the large-scale Brewer-Dobson circulation （BDC）,but the gradient increases of SST between 60°S and 60°N resulted in younger mean age-of-air in the stratosphere and a larger increase in tropical upwelling,with a much higher tropopause than from a global uniform 1.0 K SST increase.

Trends of sea surface temperature and sea surface temperature fronts in the South China Sea during 2003–2017

The trends of the sea surface temperature(SST) and SST fronts in the South China Sea(SCS) are analyzed during2003–2017 using high-resolution satellite data. The linear trend of the basin averaged SST is 0.31°C per decade,with the strongest warming identified in southeastern Vietnam. Although the rate of warming is comparable in summer and winter for the entire basin, the corresponding spatial patterns of the linear trend are substantially different between them. The SST trend to the west of the Luzon Strait is characterized by rapid warming in summer, exceeding approximately 0.6°C per decade, but the trend is insignificant in winter. The strongest warming trend occurs in the southeast of Vietnam in winter, with much less pronounced warming in summer. A positive trend of SST fronts is identified for the coast of China and is associated with increasing wind stress. The increasing trend of SST fronts is also found in the east of Vietnam. Large-scale circulation, such as El Ni?o, can influence the trends of the SST and SST fronts. A significant correlation is found between the SST anomaly and Ni?o3.4 index, and the ENSO signal leads by eight months. The basin averaged SST linear trends increase after the El Ni?o event(2009–2010), which is, at least, due to the rapid warming rate causing by the enhanced northeasterly wind. Peaks of positive anomalous SST and negatively anomalous SST fronts are found to co-occur with the strong El Ni?o events.

Interannual to Interdecadal Variation of East Asian Summer Monsoon and its Association with the Global Atmospheric Circulation and Sea Surface Temperature

The East Asian summer monsoon (EASM) underwent an interdecadal variation with interannual variations during the period from 1958 to 1997, its index tended to decline from a higher stage in the mid-1960,s until it reached a lower stage after 1980/s. Correlation analysis reveals that EASM is closely related with the global atmospheric circulation and sea surface temperature (SST). The differences between the weak and strong stage of EASM shows that, the summer monsoon circulation over East Asia and North Africa is sharply weakened, in the meantime, the westerlies in high latitudes and the trade-wind over the tropical ocean are also changed significantly. Over the most regions south of the northern subtropics, both air temperature in the lower troposphere and SST tended to rise compared with the strong stage of EASM. It is also revealed that the ocean-atmosphere interaction over the western Pacific and Indian Ocean plays a key role in interannual to interdecadal variation of EASM, most probably, the subtropical indian Ocean is more important. On the other hand, the ENSO event is less related to EASM at least during the concerned period.

Analysis on Long-Term Change of Sea Surface Temperature in the China Seas

Long-term change of sea surface temperature （SST） in the China Seas from 1900 to 2006 is examined based on two different observation datasets （HadlSSTI and HadSST3）. Similar to the Atlantic, SST in the China Seas has been well observed during the past 107 years. A comparison between the reconstructed （HadISSTI） and un-interpolated （HadSST3） datasets shows that the SST wanning trends from both datasets are consistent with each other in most of the China Seas. The warming trends are stronger in winter than in summer, with a maximum rate of SST increase exceeding 2.7℃ （100year）-I in the East China Sea and the Taiwan Strait during winter based on HadISSTI. However, the SST from both datasets experienced a sudden decrease after 1999 in the China Seas. The estimated trend from HadlSSTI is stronger than that fi＇om HadSST3 in the East China Sea and the east of Taiwan Island, where the difference in the linear SST warming trends are as large as about 1℃ （100year）-I when using respectively HadISST1 and HadSST3 datasets. When compared to the linear winter warnling trend of the land surface air temperature （1.6℃ （100 year）-1）, HadSST3 shows a more reasonable trend of less than 2.1℃（ 100 year）-1 than HadISST 1 ＇s trend of larger than 2.7℃ （ 100 year）-1 at the mouth of the Yangtze River. The restllts also indicate large uncertainties in the estimate of SST warming patterns.

The influence of ENSO on sea surface temperature variations in the China seas

Positive SST anomalies usually appear in remote ocean such as the China seas during an ENSO event. By analyzing the monthly data of HadISST from 1950 to 2007, it shows that the interannual component of SST anomalies peak approximately 10 months after SST anomalies peak in the eastern equatorial Pacific. As the ENSO event progresses, the positive SST anomalies spread throughout the China seas and eastward along the Kuroshio extension. Atmospheric reanalysis data demonstrate that changes in the net surface heat flux entering into the China seas are responsible for the SST variability. During E1 Nifio, the western north Pacific anticyclone is generated, with anomalous southwester lies prevailing along the East Asian coast. This anticyclone reduces the mean surface wind speed which decreases the surface heat flux and then increases the SST. The delays between the developing of this anticyclone and the south Indian Ocean anticyclone with approximately 3-6 months cause the 2-3 months lag of the surface heat flux between the China seas and the Indian Ocean. The northwestern Pacific anticyclone is the key process bridging the warming in the eastern equatorial Pacific and that in the China seas.

Impact of Sea Surface Temperature Front on Stratus-Sea Fog over the Yellow and East China Seas-A Case Study with Implications for Climatology

A stratus-sea fog event that occurred over the Yellow and East China Seas on 3 June 2011 is investigated using observations and a numerical model, with a focus on the effects of background circulation and Sea Surface Temperature Front （SSTF） on the transition of stratus into sea fog. Southerly winds of a synoptic high-pressure circulation transport water vapor to the Yellow Sea, creating conditions favorable for sea fog/stratus formation. The subsidence from the high-pressure contributes to the temperature inversion at the top of the stratus. The SSTF forces a secondary circulation within the ABL （Atmospheric Boundary Layer）, the sinking branch of which on the cold flank of SSTF helps lower the stratus layer fiLrther to reach the sea surface. The cooling effect over the cold sea surface counteracts the adiabatic warming induced by subsidence. The secondary circulation becomes weak and the fog patches are shrtmk heavily with the smoothed SSTE A conceptual model is proposed for the transition of stratus into sea fog over the Yellow and East China Seas. Finally, the analyses suggest that sea fog frequency will probably decrease due to the weakened SSTF and the reduced subsidence of secondary circulation under global wanning.

A model of sea surface temperature front detection based on a threshold interval

A model （Bayesian oceanic front detection, BOFD） of sea surface temperature （SST） front detection in satel- lite-derived SST images based on a threshold interval is presented, to be used in different applications such as climatic and environmental studies or fisheries. The model first computes the SST gradient by using a Sobel algorithm template. On the basis of the gradient value, the threshold interval is determined by a gradi- ent cumulative histogram. According to this threshold interval, front candidates can be acquired and prior probability and likelihood can be calculated. Whether or not the candidates are front points can be deter- mined by using the Bayesian decision theory. The model is evaluated on the Advanced Very High-Resolution Radiometer images of part of the Kuroshio front region. Results are compared with those obtained by using several SST front detection methods proposed in the literature. This comparison shows that the BOFD not only suppresses noise and small-scale fronts, but also retains continuous fronts.