Realtime Vision-Based Surface Defect Inspection of Steel Balls

In the proposed system for online inspection of steel balls, a diffuse illumination is developed to enhance defect appearances and produce high quality images. To fully view the entire sphere, a novel unfolding method is put forward based on geometrical analysis, which only requires one-dimensional movement of the balls and a pair of cameras to capture images from different directions. Moreover, a realtime inspection algorithm is customized to improve both accuracy and efficiency. The precision and recall of the sample set were 87.7% and 98%, respectively. The average time cost on image processing and analysis for a steel ball was 47 ms, and the total time cost was less than 200 ms plus the cost of image acquisition and balls' movement. The system can sort 18 000 balls per hour with a spatial resolution higher than 0.01 mm.

Automatic Detection of Steel Ball's Surface Flaws Based on Image Processing

A new method to detect steel ball's surface flaws is presented based on computer techniques of image processing and pattern recognition. The steel ball's surface flaws is the primary factor causing bearing failure. The high efficient and precision detections for the surface flaws of steel ball can be conducted by the presented method, including spot, abrasion, burn, scratch and crack, etc. The design of main components of the detecting system is described in detail including automatic feeding mechanism, automatic spreading mechanism of steel ball's surface, optical system of microscope, image acquisition system, image processing system. The whole automatic system is controlled by an industrial control computer, which can carry out the recognition of flaws of steel ball's surface effectively.

Electrochemical corrosion of steel balls in wet grinding

Rest potentials for the steel ball electrode and the pyrite electrode as well as the combination potentials and the galvanic currents developed in the pyrite steel ball couple were measured. The data demonstrate that the galvanic couples are going to form between the pyrite particles and the steel balls when they contact with each other. The initial combination potential and the initial galvanic current of the pyrite ball couple while bubbling with oxygen are greater than those in aeration of air. The combination potential and the galvanic current decrease more quickly with time while bubbling with oxygen than they do in aeration of air. In an experiment of simulating wear differences, a galvanic current, which is smaller than that developed in the pyrite ball couple, exists between two different ball electrodes in wear degree on the surface of them. Under different grinding time conditions, the equivalent corrosion current density calculated from marked ball wear data by applying Faraday’s law correlates well with those estimated from polarization curves of pyrite and ball electrodes, and the former is always greater than the latter.

The effect of pH, solid content, water chemistry and ore mineralogy on the galvanic interactions between chalcopyrite and pyrite and steel balls

The role of pH, solid content, water chemistry and ore mineralogy on the galvanic interactions between chalcopyrite and pyrite and low alloy steel balls were investigated in the grinding of Sarcheshmeh porphyry copper sulfide ore. All these factors strongly affect the galvanic current between the minerals and the steel during the grinding process. The galvanic current density decreased as the solution pH and percent solids increased. In addition, changing the water in the ball mill from tap to distilled water reduced the galvanic current between the minerals and the balls. Potentiodynamic polarization curves showed that pyrite and chalcopyrite demonstrated typical active-passive-transpassive anodic behavior in the grinding of copper ore. However, the nature of their transitions from the active to the passive state differed. This behavior was not seen in the grinding of pure minerals. In addition, an EDTA extraction technique was employed to quantify the amount of oxidized iron in the mill discharge. The amount of extractable iron was influenced by the same experimental factors and in the same way as the galvanic current.

Effect of Ball Scribing on Power Loss Separation of Fe-3%Si Grain-oriented Silicon Steel

Power loss of Fe-3%Sigrain-oriented silicon steelwas measured after ballscribing with different spacing using a self-designed tool.Three different sections of power loss,including hysteresis loss,abnormalloss,and eddy current loss,were measured and calculated,respectively.The loss variation and ratio were analyzed based on the experimentaldata.At 1.0 T,hysteresis loss of tested steelwith scribing spacing of 8 mm descends by 8.2% compared to samples without scribing,which is similar to the totalloss variation,and abnormalloss descends by 16.8%.At 1.0 T,hysteresis loss ratio of the steelwith scribing spacing of 16 mm ascends from 55.7% to 57.9%,and eddy current loss increases from 17.4% to 24.1%,while abnormalloss descends from 26.9% to 23.7%.The experimentalresults show that the reduction of power loss after scribing is mainly due to decreasing of hysteresis loss and abnormalloss.

Finite element analysis of deformation characteristics in cold helical rolling of bearing steel-balls

Due to the complexity of investigating deformation mechanisms in helical rolling(HR) process with traditional analytical method, it is significant to develop a 3D finite element(FE) model of HR process. The key forming conditions of cold HR of bearing steel-balls were detailedly described. Then, by taking steel-ball rolling elements of the B7008 C angular contact ball bearing as an example, a completed 3D elastic-plastic FE model of cold HR forming process was established under SIMUFACT software environment. Furthermore, the deformation characteristics in HR process were discovered, including the forming process, evolution and distribution laws of strain, stress and damage based on Lemaitre relative damage model. The results reveal that the central loosening and cavity defects in HR process may have a combined effect of large negative hydrostatic pressure(positive mean stress)caused by multi-dimensional tensile stresses, high level transverse tensile stress, and circular-alternating shear stress in cross section.

WEARING PERFORMANCE OF STEEL BALLS IN WET GRINDING

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Effect of Ball Scribing on Iron Loss of CGO and HGO Electrical Steel

The effect of ball scribing on iron loss of conventional grain-oriented ( CGO) and high-permeability grain-oriented ( HGO) electrical steel was investigated. In this paper,ball scribing was achieved by self- designed ball scribing instrument and a computer-controlled system capable of providing high accuracy and automatic measurements was developed for the magnetisation and measurement at high and low flux densities. The results showed that after ball scribing,iron loss of two types of steel ( C711 and H668 ) apparently decreases ( 5. 5% and 8. 2% respectively after 16mm scribing at 1. 2T) ,and at high and low flux densities, CGO and HGO electrical steel performs differently. Through the formation and development of free magnetic poles and secondary magnetic domains due to compressive stress,primary magnetic domain spacing of grain- oriented electrical steel becomes smaller,which reflects as a reduction of iron loss in the macroscopic magnetic properties. Through iron loss formula derivation,the effect of domain refinement on grain-oriented electrical steel was also interpreted.

Structural optimization for ball valve made of CF8M stainless steel

The mechanical and chemical properties of CF8M were studied through experiments. An application of CF8M in valve body was analyzed by using finite element method(FEM) to evaluate the structural safety. An optimization containing several variables based on the response surface method(RSM) was conducted to find the optimum dimension of the valve. The results show that using this process can save valve mass as well as the computational expense effectively.

Mechanical Property of Low Chromium Semi-Steel Grinding Ball Prepared by Cross Rolling

The preparing method,rolling technology and mechanical properties of low chromium semi-steel grinding ball by cross rolling were studied.The results show that when the low chromium semi-steel bar is forged from55mm to50mm,cross-rolled into grinding ball at 1 000-1 050℃,air cooled and tempered at 550℃for 2h,the best mechanical properties,especially the abrasive resistance under the action of hard abrasive,can be obtained.

Low-Energy Multi-Impact Fracture Resistance of Cross Rolled Low Chromium Cast Semi-Steel Containing Rare Earth Grinding Ball

The low-energy multi-impact fracture resistance of the cross rolled low chromium cast semi-steel containing RE grinding balls was studied. Moreover, its damage mode was analyzed by means of metallographic examination, scanning electron microscopic examination and drop ball test. The results show that it can obtain extractive impact fracture resistance after proper heat treatment. More advantages were obtained for the ball worked in the condition of low-imp ductility act. The main reasons are the function of RE and the change in morphology of eutectic carbide network.

Preparation and Characterization of Stainless Steel/TiC Nanocomposite Particles by Ball-milling Method

A stainless steel/10wt%TiC nanocomposite particles were prepared by high-energy ball-milling method using stainless steel, carbon and titanium as raw materials. The evolution of phase composition, microstructure and specific surface area of the stainless steel/TiC nanocomposite particles with increasing ball-milling time in the range of 0-100 h were investigated by XRD, SEM, TEM and BET techniques. The results showed that the stainless steel/TiC nano-composite particles were fabricated when the ball-milling time was longer than 20 h. However, the nanocomposite particles were soldered and agglomerated again when the ball-milling time was longer than 60 h. The microstructure of the composite particles transformed from lamellar structure to nanostructure during the repeated process of the cold welding and cracking. TEM image reveals clearly that the in-situ TiC nanoparticles with grain size of 3-8 nm are in the interior of the stainless steel/TiC nanocomposite particles obtained by ball-milling 100 h.

EFFECT OF SULFUR ON PROPERTIES OF BALL BEARING STEEL

5 heats of GCr15 bearing steel of different sulfur contents ranging from 0.009-0.092% （wt.）were smelted. The role of sulfur in bearing steel and its effect on contact fatigue properties andfracture toughness KICWere studied. It was shown that as the sulfur content increases the sulfur content dissolved in the steelsubstrate remains unchanged. The best contact fatigue property appears at the sulfur content of0.045% （wt.）, and the influence of sulfur content on the fracture toughness of bearing steel is notobvious. Finally, the mechanism of the role of sulfur was investigated.

联合载荷作用下精密轴系角接触球轴承钢球与保持架动力学行为分析

针对联合载荷作用下精密轴系角接触球轴承钢球与保持架的相互作用行为,基于滚动轴承动力学理论建立了精密轴系动力学分析模型,分析了转速、载荷、轴承结构参数对钢球与保持架动力学行为的影响,并通过保持架转速试验验证了模型的准确性,结果表明:力矩载荷对钢球与保持架动力学行为的影响程度较径向载荷明显;在径向载荷作用下,当转速小于40000 r/min时钢球与保持架的作用力随轴向预紧力增大而增大,当转速大于40000 r/min时钢球与保持架的作用力随轴向预紧力增大先减小后增大;在力矩载荷作用下,钢球与保持架的作用力随着力矩载荷的增大先增大再减小而后急剧增大;增大保持架兜孔间隙与外沟曲率半径系数有利于减小钢球与保持架的作用力。

球压痕法获取不同变形率下316L不锈钢的力学性能

核电焊接结构由于在加工过程中受到冷作硬化导致局部区域力学性能发生改变且难以准确获取,利用ABAQUS有限元分析软件建立了弹塑性材料下的压痕实验三维模型进行数值模拟,通过识别载荷-深度曲线中的相关参数,结合量纲分析法理论计算316L奥氏体不锈钢材料在不同变形率下的力学性能参量。结果表明,随着变形率的不断增大,材料的塑性降低,硬度增大,且力学性能参数如屈服强度、抗拉强度及硬化指数均相应增大。

基于直线扫描的引信钢球分层成像检测算法

针对现有的火药引信装配正确性检测方法中存在的无法准确检测遮挡严重的零件的问题,提出了引信中钢球分层成像定位检测算法。将X射线源直线移动扫描待测物体形成多个虚拟的小孔径,结合光学合成孔径原理对所有小孔径进行合成,将合成的虚拟大孔径成像在不同距离深度的平面上,实现对目标的定位和检测。试验结果表明:所提算法能够在火药引信钢球相互重叠的情况下利用深度信息进行分层成像,提供待测物体的深度信息,能够对不同层次的目标进行检测,确定待检测物体的数量,解决了现有的检测方法在检测过程中出现的漏检问题。

基于AlexNet-SVM模型微型钢球表面缺陷快速识别方法

微型钢球由于高反射、球体需要全覆盖的特点,其表面缺陷的质量控制尤为困难。针对人工检测方法效率低且准确度不足的问题,文章提出一种改进的AlexNet的卷积神经网络和SVM模型的钢球表面缺陷快速识别方法。该模型删减了后3个卷积层,保留全连接层FC7提取的特征,采用SVM代替原始Softmax分类器以防止过拟合,提高模型泛化能力。此外,研究了基于K-CV的改进网络搜索算法确定分类器最佳参数。实验采用混淆矩阵对提出模型的识别结果进行性能评估,结果表明,该方法平均准确率达到99.43%,运算时间为17.2 ms。对比原模型及其他网络模型,具有较高的准确度和推理速度,能够满足工业现场检测的需求。

AISI-304不锈钢薄壁管滚珠旋压工艺参数的正交优化研究

针对小直径不锈钢薄壁管滚珠旋压参数不当引发的一系列问题,选取φ6 mm×0.5 mm×10 mm的AISI-304不锈钢管为研究对象,建立其有限元模型,运用Abaqus软件对其成形过程进行仿真,分析了不同工艺参数(减薄量、进给比、旋压角)对其等效应力和均匀塑性应变的影响,最后运用正交试验法对工艺参数进行优化。结果表明:优化后的工艺参数组合为:减薄量0.2 mm、进给比0.05 mm/r、旋压角25°。在此工艺参数组合下,AISI-304不锈钢管的等效应力值和均匀塑性应变值达到最优,其值分别为642.22 MPa和0.06。

一种考虑球体变形的钨球侵彻低碳钢深度计算模型

为了研究钨球在高速撞击下的变形行为对侵彻效果的影响,对钨球侵彻半无限低碳钢靶进行试验研究,得到<1600 m/s冲击速度下钨球变形特征和靶板侵彻深度随冲击速度的变化规律。在此基础上构建钨球侵彻塑性变形模型。将钨球变形模型和球形空腔膨胀阻力模型相结合,建立钨球变形侵彻深度计算模型。对比不同撞击速度下钨球变形侵彻模型、刚性侵彻模型的计算结果。对比结果表明,变形侵彻模型能够更加准确地计算钨球对半无限靶的侵彻深度,计算结果与试验相比最大误差20%(正误差15%,负误差5%),精度较刚性侵彻模型提升42.86%。

大跨度错层多曲面焊接球钢网架施工技术研究

大跨度错层多曲面焊接球钢网架的一般施工过程包括:首先根据已有的施工图纸进行放线定位,确定球件控制点;然后搭建支撑架体,开展焊接球以及网架杆件的安装;复核安装完成的钢网架满足设计形态后,根据施工模拟结果设置钢网架的提升吊点;提升前对焊缝进行检验,并在施工过程中开展位移和挠度监测,确保钢网架整体提升安全性。监测结果显示,实际网架施工符合设计方案要求,从而说明所采用的施工技术,能够满足大跨度错层多曲面焊接球钢网架施工需求。