Measuring the social performance of forest management

Forests produce several types of benefits to both forest landowners and society.The social benefit of private forestry is equal to private benefit plus positive externalities minus negative externalities.This study developed alternative metrics for the evaluation of the social benefit of forest management.Forest management was assessed in terms of five criteria:economic,socio-cultural,environmental and ecological performance and the resilience of the forest ecosystem.Each criterion was described with three numerical indicators.Alternative performance indices were calculated from the indicator values using methods developed for multi-criteria decision making.It was concluded that indices based on the multiplicative Cobb-Douglas utility function might be the most recommendable when forestry should produce a balanced combination of different ecosystem services.When the indices were used to compare alternative silvicultural systems in terms of their social performance,continuous cover management was ranked better than even-aged management.The performance of even-aged management improved when it aimed at increasing the share of mixed stands and broadleaf species.Maximizing net present value(NPV) with a 1 % discount rate led to better social performance than maximizing NPV with a 4% discount rate.

Effects of grazing on natural regeneration of tree and herb species of Kheyroud forest in northern Iran

We investigated the effects of grazing on natural regeneration, quantity, and diversity of woody species and dominant herb species in Kheyroud forest in northern Iran. We sampled vegetation in 5m2 plots in custom units, which are demarcated resource areas traditionally used by local livestock producers. The authors quantified number of species, height of seedlings, and diameter of seedlings. Height classes were 0-30 cm, 30-130 cm, and 〉130 cm, and diameter classes were 0-2.5 cm, 2.5-5 cm and 5-7.5 cm. The density of seedlings declined with distance from corral until reaching the custom unit boundary. Most seedlings had diameters of 0-2.5 cm and heights of 0-30 cm. Predominant species, Carpinus betulus and Acer capadocicum, were in plots near the centers of custom units, Fagus orientalis, Acer velutinum, Quercus castanifolia species were dominant in plots near the custom unit boundary. Plant species such as Oplismenus undulatifolius, Euphorbia amygdaloides, Rubusfrutieos and Pteridium aquilinum were dominant in plots nearer to forest corral. Healthy seedlings were more numerous in plots nearest the corral, while defective and deformed seedlings were more abundant away from the corral. We conclude that grazing had negative effects on the quantity and quality of vegetative regeneration. Continuation of overgrazing will not only endanger the sustainability of forest ecosystems, but also will increase the challenge of sustainable forest management.

Illegal Logging and Related Trade: Who Combat It as Legal Subjects?

Issue on illegal logging and related trade is a hot topic for the international community. It has brought the negative effects to the sustainable development on global society, economy and ecology, which is also one of the main objectives of international cooperation to combat with. At present, subjects of international law play a decisive role in combating illegal logging and related trade. The subjects of international law generally refer to states, intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) and part of non-governmental organizations (NGOs), which can have an independent international legal personality, enjoy rights and assume obligations of international law. As a responsible big country of the international community and state member of intergovernmental organizations and international treaties of forest resources protection, China ought to fully perform the obligations of international law. In face of illegal logging and related trade around the world, China should rationally tackle with it, resolutely crack down on it, and finally choose the sustainable development strategy based on rule of law.

Assessing forest sustainability trajectory with temporal changes in timber output and ecological reserve: the case of China

We classified forest resources into four modes：high timber output and high ecological reserve（Mode T-E）; high timber output and low ecological reserve（Mode T-e）; low timber output and low ecological reserve（Mode t-e）; and low timber output and high ecological reserve（Mode t-E）. Ecological reserve is stand volume per unit area of natural forests and total area of natural forests;timber output is defined as total area of timber forests and unit area of timber production. We used this classification system to examine forest development in China between1950 and 2013. Data were acquired mainly from forest inventory statistics published by China’s Forestry Administration between the 1970 s and 2013. I Information from the 1950 s was acquired from relevant literature. Our analysis suggests that China’s forest resources transitioned from Mode t-E to Mode T-e during the period between the early 1950 s and late 1970 s, resulting in the destruction of both ecological vigor and timber resources. During the following 20 years, strategies were implemented to improve the ecological reserve and increase timber supply,resulting in a decline in the rate of forest degradation. Over the past decade, China’s forest resources have reached Mode T-E as a result of improvements in both the ecological reserve and the timber supply. Currently, the total area of timber forests is relatively low, representing the limiting factor for improvement in overall forest functionality. Nevertheless, along with increased efforts to protect natural forests and develop fast-growing forest plantations, it is hopeful that China’s forest resources will achieve a sustainable state. The four-mode TOER（timber output, ecological reserve） method introduced in this paper is a simple but an effective approach for characterizing the overall quality and quantity of forest resources. The data used for this type of evaluation are typically easy to obtain and reliable. This methodology has potential to be applied to forests in various regions and countries.

Ecological perspectives on variable retention forestry

Forest management globally affects the ecosystem services,especially those related to ecosystem functioning and biodiversity conservation,by altering forest structure and composition.The degree of alteration was related to the intensity and type of harvesting;therefore,the major silvicultural challenge is to develop alternatives to mitigate climate change and maintain forest functions and biodiversity while also providing acceptable levels of timber production.Variable retention forestry(VRF)is a highly flexible concept,with continuity of forest cover,structure,function,and species composition,thereby supporting multiple economic,environmental,and cultural goals.This special issue provides an overview of the concepts and applications related to VRF implementation around the world.It shows that VRF has been applied globally for several decades,with varying levels and retention types,depending on local conditions and the economic importance of forestry.The challenges of VRF seem to differ to some extent on different continents,yet the general aims have been accepted in most of the continents.VRF has been successful in mitigating many effects of intensive harvesting,though in some forests of the world,the retention levels are too low to maintain acceptable levels of biodiversity and ecosystem functions.We conclude that an active collaboration between scientists and forest practitioners is needed to realize all of the opportunities provided by VRF in solving global forestry-related issues.

Clearcuts and related secondary dieback undermine the ecological effectiveness of FSC certification in a boreal forest

Background:Over the last 25 years,the prominent forest certification system established by the Forest Stewardship Council(FSC)has used by many companies worldwide for claiming responsible forest management.The objectives of the Russian National FSC standard to decrease the size of clearcuts and the retention of forest elements such as residual seed trees need on-site validation to proof the effectiveness of FSC.To assess the ecological impacts of harvesting practices and benefits of FSC certification,we geospatially compared logging activities with and without FSC certification.Within a sample area covering approximately 3,000 km^(2) in the east of the Russian Arkhangelsk Region,we used available data on tree cover loss and satellite images to assess secondary impacts of clearcuttings on adjacent remnant forests and to quantify the logging intensity.Additionally,the size and structure as well as the density of skidding trails of ten specific clearcuttings located within the sample area were surveyed using satellite images and in the field observation to delineate the boundaries of clearcuts and forested remnants within the clearcuts.Results:We found a significant increase of small-scale tree cover loss in the proximity of the clearcuts.Patchy dieback is possibly linked to the scale and intensity of logging in the surroundings.On the investigated clearcuts,FSC failed to reduce the size,to increase the retention of forest remnants including seed trees on logged areas,and to maintain larger tracts of undisturbed ground and soil compared to clearcuts that were logged before they received FSC-certification.Conclusions:Trees and forest remnants remaining inside an increasingly stressed forest ecosystem matrix may not resist further harvesting-related and climate change-induced stresses and disturbances.Large-scale clearcuttings seem to have negative impacts even in adjacent forests and undermine the ecological effectiveness of FSC certification in the study area.The Russian FSC standard is not clearly setting effective guidelines that induce a change in clearcutting practices in order to reduce ecological risks.

Nutrient Management for Eucalypt Plantations in South China

Eucalypts are very popular for revegetation in many parts of south China because of their capacity to tolerate degraded sites and unfertile soils,and their fast growth potential to coppice. This paper reviews a decade of field trials in china, undertaken as part of several bilateral researchprograms in plantation forestry, concerning the use of fertilizers, harvest residue management and inoculation with ectomycorrhizal fungi. One of the key questions addressed is whether the productivity of plantation ...